The Rise of Western European Anti-Immigration Movements and What it Means for the Future

There are an estimated 12 million illegal immigrants in the United States. One of the solutions suggested by George W. Bush and the Republican Party is a temporary workers program. The proposed program would address a labor shortage and provide legitimacy for some undocumented workers[1]. As American citizens and politicians debate the issue of immigration, her European neighbors are finding themselves deeply involved in a similar debate. The main difference however is that these European nations have already attempted guest worker programs. The long-lasting effects of these programs coupled with a massive influx of Muslim immigrants have sparked the rise of anti-immigration movements in Western Europe. Many of these anti-immigration movements have been created in response to the integration policies of the European Union and the ensuing floods of immigrants from the newer Eastern European member states.

In recent elections, western European political parties that have run with an anti-immigration agenda have gained much support, especially in countries such as the United Kingdom, Belgium, Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Austria, Germany and Italy. In these countries, anti-immigration movements have gained support and momentum that will likely increase in the coming years because there are increasingly high numbers of unemployment, a reemergence of nationalist sentiment and the fact that immigrants are having difficulty assimilating. Many political scientists argue that if immigration continues in this pattern and if anti-immigration parties continue to gain strength across Europe, Europe will be facing disaster.

The Beginning: Guest Worker Programs

Although there are many issues surrounding the topic of European immigration and the rising popularity of anti-immigration movements, one must first understand the development of the guest working programs that were instituted in the 1960s. In 1960 Germany, after recovering quickly from World War II, experienced a labor shortage of such magnitude that there were more job vacancies registered with the Employment Service than there were unemployed workers. Employers began petitioning the government for permission to recruit workers from other countries, "reasoning that the guests would work for one or two years in Germany, and then return to Italy, Yugoslavia, or Turkey with their savings and skills in a mutually beneficial labor exchange. Guest workers trickled in...the number of guest workers peaked at 2.6 million in 1973, when 65 percent of the four million foreigners in Germany were at work"[2]. During this period, economists estimated that the workers had kept wages down and allowed German industries to remain competitive in the market.

In 1973 however, an oil crisis prompted Germany and other European nations who had instituted guest worker programs to stop recruiting foreign workers. According to the system that the governments had imagined when creating the guest worker programs, the unemployed guest workers should return to their native countries. This plan failed because many foreign workers chose not to return to their native countries, where the possibility for finding a job was even more bleak than in their host countries. Instead of returning home, many foreigners "had their families join them, despite efforts...to discourage family unification"[3]. The effect of the guest worker program in Germany, as well as most other European nations can be summed up quickly: "the number of foreigners in Germany increased 82 percent between 1973 and 1999, while the number of foreign workers fell by 23 percent. Instead of guest workers being in Germany to work, foreigners in Germany today are associated with unemployment rates at least twice the 10 percent average rate"[4]. The statistics are clear evidence that guest worker programs in Europe were only a temporary solution for the labor shortage. Instead, these worker programs led to more long-lasting issues of unemployed foreign workers, integration problems and the ensuing anti-immigration movements.

Another issue surrounding immigration that has led to the cause of anti-immigration sentiment is that, according to Claire Berlinski, Europeans are adjusting to immigration just as well as the immigrants are adjusting in Europe, which does not say much[5]. Sylvia Poggioli, writing for NPR, agrees with Berlinski that the current immigration situation is simply not working well for Europe. However, Poggioli goes on to say that Europeans

are also starting to acknowledge the failure of four decades of immigration policies -- based on idealistic multiculturalism and/or condescending benign neglect -- that have produced separate, parallel societies of immigrants. ... The inward-looking climate throughout the continent is playing into the hands of right-wing political parties that until recently had been stigmatized as unacceptable in proper European society. The radical populist right is scoring electoral successes from Poland to Austria, from Switzerland to Germany[6]

In this simple statement, Poggioli sums up the issue with immigration in Europe. Unemployment, nationalism and a simple lack of adjustment are the causes of an increasing anti-immigration sentiment in Europe, which has spread to nearly every country in Western Europe.

Europeans have also gradually begun turning away from the Christian faith in the recent decades. Europe's rejection of Christianity has led to a reemergence of nationalism on the continent. Europeans identify a nation as a state consisting only of those who share a specific history, language and culture. This means that anyone who does not fit into this mold should be excluded from the nation. These nationalistic ideals have become the cornerstone in the lives of many Europeans mainly because, jaded and resentful, many Europeans no longer cling to a religious faith[7].

These nationalistic ideals as well as the reluctance of many immigrants to assimilate have caused the popularity of anti-immigration movements in Europe to increase dramatically. Anti-immigration movements are gaining popularity not only in Germany, where guest worker programs began, but all across Western Europe. Although each nation has its own political party dedicated to anti-immigration policies, each party has its own peculiarities and agendas and are regarded as separate entities. Once one has examined anti-immigration movements in Western Europe, however, it becomes startlingly clear that despite the fact that these parties only hold a majority of any given country, when combined, those of an anti-immigrant sentiment make up quite a large group.

A Look Across Europe

The United Kingdom

One might think that since the United Kingdom is not physically connected to the European continent, that there is a possibility that this anti-immigration sentiment would not have reached the country. This thought however, would be highly inaccurate. Britain has been having immigration problems since the 1950's when a large wave of post-World War II immigration hit the nation. Continued problems with integration and assimilation have led to a number of racist anti-immigration riots in several British cities[8].

In Britain it is the British National Party that has embraced the anti-immigration sentiment in the United Kingdom. According to the 2005 British National Party General Election Manifesto,

Britain's very existence todayis threatened by immigration. ... To take just one example, it is a hard fact that, according to official figures, 15% of the UK's male prison population is black, despite black people accounting for only 2% of the total population. ... Figures for unemployment, welfare dependency, educational failure, and other social pathologies tell a similar story for most other foreign ethnic groups. There is simply no escaping the fact that choosing to admit such persons into the country in significant numbers means choosing to become a poorer, more violent, more dependent and worse-educated society[9].

By using this information along with the statistic that in sixty years native British people will be a minority on the continent, the British National Party is, much like other anti-immigration party leaders, using fear to propagate the anti-immigration sentiment that is spreading throughout the continent.

Austria

On the other corner of Western Europe, Austria is home to another anti-immigration party in Europe. Austria's Freedom Party has gained increased attention over its anti-immigrant stance. The party's platform calls for screening of all potential immigrants to Austria, requiring proof of a job and a place of residence, much like the immigration laws of America in the early 1900's. The party also advocates the deportation of all illegal immigrants, the deportation of legal immigrants who have committed crimes and the requirement that all foreigners carry a state-issued ID[10].

According to New York Times contributor Mark Landler, the Freedom Party won 11.2% of the national vote in the September election, after running on a strict anti-foreigner campaign. Obviously, the Freedom Party "tapped into the frustrations of Austrians in Vienna who find that their German-speaking children are a minority in public schools"[11]. Landler also asserts that the anti-immigrant sentiment has become part of the mainstream mainly because the Austrians fear that these incoming immigrants will take their jobs. Quoting Herbert Lackner, editor of a popular political magazine, Landler writes "'now we're expecting Romania and Bulgaria, two very poor countries, to join the European Union, and their people are going to move to wealthier countries. ... We are the first wealthy country in their way' to prosperity"[12].

Germany

Austria's neighbor is home to what has the potential to be the most frightening anti-immigration movements in Europe, the German National Democratic Party. There is probably nothing more feared than a radical German political party that is solidly gaining ground. The National Democratic Party won 7.3% of the vote in one region in Germany, giving them more than they needed to have seats on the parliament, just a few months ago. The BBC reported that this is a quite significant increase over their results of the last election which gave the party less than 1% of the vote, something that current Chancellor Angela Merkel refers to as "regrettable"[13]. Although the party has less than 10% of the vote, it should be noted because of the sharp increase in numbers from one election to the next. Obviously, this party is on the rise in Germany, due to its stance against immigration.

In an interview between Wolfgang Keller for the National Vanguard and Udo Voigt, the leader of the National Democratic Party, Voigt described Germany under NPD leadership. Voigt said that "there will be a new economic as well as new social order, which will ensure an honored place for the German family and which will give financial support to young Germans in order to enable them to raise children-the most precious resource of our people and...aliens will be welcomed as guests, but should live and work in their own countries"[14]. Although the policy does not seem overly stringent, it should be noted that Voigt, a Nazi sympathizer, warned that he would not be speaking freely because he believes that the German people no longer have the right to free speech. He advises the listeners to read between the lines; it is quite possible that his message was interpreted in a number of ways.

The Netherlands

It is also important to take note of an anti-immigration movement in the Netherlands, one of the few European countries that does not need to rely on immigration for any socio-economic reasons. Pim Fortuyn's List has just this year become the second biggest party represented in parliament in its first ever election appearance. This movement is named after its former leader Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated in May. Fortuyn had become notorious because of his strict anti-immigration stance, specifically against Muslim immigration. "Islamic immigrants, he pointed out, tended to take a dim view of homosexuals such as himself. ... Traditional Islamic values, he observed, were incompatible with the sexual openness and equality practiced in the Netherlands"[15]. Fortuyn also credited the Muslims with forced marriages, honor killings, female genital mutilation and rising crime rates. Berlinski is quick to note, however, that Fortuyn did not ask for the expulsion of those who had already immigrated to the country, as many other anti-immigration leaders have, but called for more government spending to help these immigrants assimilate.

Belgium

Just south of the Netherlands, Belgium has its own anti-immigration movement, but with a slight twist. In the Dutch speaking region of Flanders, the Flemish Interest Party is one of the most successful anti-immigration parties in Europe. A little less than two months ago, the Flemish Interest Party won 41 percent of the vote in the local elections, far more than any other party. The party, which is also in petition for the secession of the region from Belgium, is especially fighting against Muslim immigrants that will not assimilate into their society. It is the party's argument that Muslim culture is not compatible with the Flemish way of life[16].

The Flemish Interest Party Manifesto states that it is their duty to "preserve the cultural identity and the national interests of the Flemish people." It also asserts that in concern for this cultural identity, the party rejects the current multicultural ideology. The members view these policies as erroneous and feels that "it must be made clear to aliens and immigrants in Flanders that they are expected to comply with our laws, and also to adapt our values and morality, to our habits and to important traditional principles of European civilization, such as the separation of church and state, democracy, freedom of speech and the equal status of men and women"[17]. The members of the party do not feel that Muslims are able to live under these European values and because of this, their party is almost more of an anti-Islam party than anti-immigration. However, the party is firmly against Muslim migration to Belgium, made quite clear in a quote by the head of the party, Filip Dewinter: "We can't allow that they come to our country, that they come to Europe, and they keep their own culture, their own religion-Islamic religion-which is not always compatible with our way of life, our culture"[18].

Norway

Yet another country that has been swept up in an anti-immigration movement is Norway. The Progress Party, led by Carl Hagen, has recently become the second biggest party represented in the Storting (the parliament). The Progress Party is identified as the most right-wing party of those represented in the government, pushing for stronger defense and a strict immigration and asylum policy. The party hopes to set an immigration quota of 1,000 people per year[19]Progress has led decades of witch-hunts aimed at immigrants and those on welfare. This has left Norway with the most aggressive anti-immigrant policies in Europe, with immigrant workers often being subject to racist violence."[20] Despite the fact that this is one of the most aggressive anti-immigrant groups, the Progress Party has gained momentum in the past years and has been steadily gaining influence on the government and on immigration policy. . The leader of the party, Hagen, is seen as the "voice of the people," someone who is able to say what most politicians are afraid to say. According to Steve James, a writer for the World Socialist Web Site, "

Denmark

The anti-immigration sentiment has spread south from Norway to Denmark as well. It has shown up in Denmark as the Danish People's Party, led by Pia Kjaersgaard, who has seen much success by running an anti-immigration platform. Again, the issue for the Danish people is that the immigrant, especially Muslims who do not share Western values, have not assimilated to culture and pose a threat to the national identity of Denmark[21]. The Danish people are also concerned with immigration because of the already high levels of unemployment. In a recent article of The Economist regarding a single market in Europe, the issue over unemployment and immigration is briefly discussed. "There is...hostility toward workers from the east. Earlier this year a Danish carpenter, nothing that Polish carpenters can do the same job for a quarter of the price, said bluntly that was 'not the kind of competition we want in Europe'"[22]. Not only do the Danes wish to cut Muslim immigration, but also immigration from Eastern European countries. Each group is looked at as a threat to the stability of their society.

According to the website of the Danish People's Party, the party is currently the third largest in the country, more than doubling its representation in the last election. As for immigration, the website asserts that "Denmark is not an immigrant-country and has never been so. Therefore, we will not accept a transformation to a multiethnic society"[23]. The site does not acknowledge its bias against Muslims or Eastern Europeans but simply argues an anti-immigrant stance based on the preservation of its past and the protection of its future.

France

One European anti-immigration party that has recently gained attention due to its receiving a large percentage of votes in the national election is the National Front, a French party led by Jean-Marie Le Pen. Although the party has been around since the early 1970's, it has only recently become a real national presence, coming in second place in the 2002 presidential election. Le Pen's major issue is, of course, immigration. According to Sylvia Poggioli, he is calling for "an immediate halt to immigration, expulsion of illegal aliens and, above all, what he calls 'national preference' - a welfare system that favors indigenous French over those with immigrant backgrounds"[24].

According to J. Richard Piper, the problem with immigration in France is about unemployment. Piper explains,

The immigration issue has become a highly divisive one in French politics in recent years. Non-European immigrants from the Arab world, Asia and Africa south of the Sahara have come in large numbers to France...they have had difficulty in finding good jobs in a period of prolonged high unemployment and have tended to be concentrated in dilapidated high-rise suburbs around Paris and other major French cities, where their living conditions also contribute to high crime rates[25].

Piper goes on to say that Le Pen is one of the politicians who have capitalized on this by spotlighting immigrants and suggesting mass deportation as a solution to the problems in Paris suburbs.

In fact, Le Pen's election manifesto spoke against immigrants, citing that they pose a grave danger to France and that French culture should be advanced at every possible opportunity. The National Front is not only an increasingly popular political party. The National Front extends its influence deep into French society with many clubs, a youth organization, a women's group and many other French nationalist groups[26]. This is indicative that French society is quickly embracing Le Pen's ideas and perhaps an explanation for why the latest polls are showing that Le Pen is currently looking at double the level of support now than in the same period before the last election[27].

Italy

Just across the southeastern border of France is Northern Italy, another center of anti-immigration sentiment. The northern regions of Italy is home to the Northern League, which has petitioned for an independent North Italian state called Padania and is pushing for immigration quotas in all 20 of the regions in Italy. The party is also demanding that only immigrants with work permits would be allowed to enter the country, despite the fact that there is an extreme labor shortage in the northern regions[28].

There is also an anti-Muslim tinge to the immigration issue in Italy. Just a few months ago, a 20-year old Muslim woman, Hina Saleem, was murdered by her father, uncle and brother-in-law because her family objected to the fact that she was dressing like Western women and working as a waitress. According to Elisabetta Povoledo of the International Herald Tribune,

The murder has prompted weeks of front-page debate on what can happen when conservative beliefs collide with the mores of more permissive societies, and has sparked strong anti-immigrant feelings....The federalist Northern League party used the Hina case to argue that immigration to Italy should be limited to people who are "socially, culturally and religiously compatible with our way of life and legislation," as a Northern League lawmaker, Angelo Alessandrini told ANSA[29].

Not surprisingly, the thoughts of the Northern League mirror those of many of the anti-immigration groups throughout Europe. They argue that Muslim immigrants are simply unable to adapt to Western society and in light of this, should not be permitted to immigrate to these Western countries.

Perhaps one of the most intriguing facets of the Italian anti-immigration movement is the late Oriana Fallaci, a former resistance fighter in Nazi-occupied Florence and fiery journalist who had struck fear into the heart of Henry Kissinger. Although Fallaci is Italian and proud of it, her voice seems to carry over to all of the anti-immigration movements in Western Europe. Fallaci wrote that "Moderate Islam...was 'a pool that never purifies.' All Muslims were bent on invading Europe and turning it into a 'Eurabia' of veiled women and sharia law. Assimilation was a delusion; they did not want it"[30]. Once again, her comments are typical of anti-immigration movements across Europe. Ms. Fallaci's recent work The Rage and the Pride scolds Italians for allowing immigrants to take over their cities. According to Claire Berlinksi, "The Rage and the Pride, a violent, uncensored anti-immigration manifesto, was also the most successful book ever published in Italy. ... It was also the number one best-seller in Germany, France and Spain"[31].

Berlinski seems to believe that the success of Oriana Fallaci's book should be an indication that these anti-immigration movements are just the beginning. Neither Western Europeans, nor those immigrating to these countries are adjusting well to their new situations. As a look at several Western European nations shows that within the past few years anti-immigration movements have been gaining momentum, Berlinski predicts that this trend will continue in the same direction. She notes that it is the ongoing problems of unemployment, increasing nationalism and the inability of these immigrants to assimilate are the causes of this increased anti-immigration sentiment. That is the explanation. The problem with this: Despite the fact that anti-immigration sentiment is spreading across the continent like wild fire, Europeans need these immigrants that they despise so much because the national birthrates are not at a level capable of supporting a European culture or the numerous welfare states spread across the continent.

Implications for the Future

Europe and the European Union

It is necessary to make several comments about both the necessity and the effects of immigration in Europe. Although the only thing that can rectify the population decline in Europe is high levels of immigration, this will be disastrous for the socio-economic stability in Western Europe. "Particularly given Europe's high rate of unemployment-some 15 or 20 million Europeans are jobless-it is hardly likely that so many immigrants could easily be culturally, politically, or economically integrated"[32].

The increasing popularity of anti-immigration movements in Europe is cause for concern for the future of the European Union. "A cornerstone of the European Union is freedom of movement, which means that an E.U. national such as a Frenchman may travel to Germany and seek private sector jobs on an equal basis with German workers."[33] To many Europeans, the prospect of having to accept more workers from the east is a reason to oppose the membership of new European Union member candidates, like Turkey. As its name suggests the European Union is meant to unify Europe and is "committed to working together for peace and prosperity."[34] The addition of new member states from Eastern Europe would allow more people the ability to freely move and work in any of the European Union member states. For countries that are already struggling with immigration issues, this prospect is not one that is welcomed. Increased immigration would likely increase (even more) the popularity of anti-immigration movements in Europe, which would quite possibly end in disunion within the organization rather than a union, as the name implies.

The issue of immigration in Europe has not only created the possibility of collapsing the economy of a number of welfare states, but also the European Union as well. The welfare states are unable to support the growing number of immigrants, nor do the citizens of these countries want to support those from foreign countries. The European Union, which is based on the idea of European unity, is unable to unify its people, which is made evident through the growing popularity of anti-immigration movements.

The United States

The United States could benefit from studying both the guest working programs instituted in Europe during the 1960's, as well as their long-term effects. Although the United States does not find itself in the same difficulty as Europe-Europe's plunging birth rates make an immigrant population a necessity-its policy makers might learn from the failure of the guest working programs in Europe.

In recent years, Americans have expressed feelings similar to those of an anti-immigration sentiment in Europe. On May 1, 2007, immigration rallies were held across the country, which produced only a fraction of the million-plus protesters who turned out in 2006. The low turnout for this year's rallies is partly due to the number of raids that occurred after the rallies last year. Despite the lack of immigrants at this year's rally, many Americans turned out to protest pro-immigration legislation. "'I want to send them back,' said Phoenix resident George Propheter, who held up a large handwritten sign that read 'Hell No.' 'I've been in the city for 40 years. They've completely destroyed our city.'"[35]

It is obvious that there is much anti-immigration sentiment in the United States. Although the American immigration issue is different than the European problems, because the United States is trying to produce legislation as a solution to the issues caused by an estimated 12 million illegal immigrants, it would benefit the United States to study and learn from the problems caused by the guest working programs in Europe. According to Philip Martin

guest workers everywhere are associated with distortion and dependence that lead to a larger and longer-lasting labor imports than were anticipated....importing foreign workers to cope with 'temporary' labor shortages inevitably distorts the economy and increases the dependence of some employers on foreign workers, while some workers, families, and regions come to rely on jobs and wages abroad.[36]

Essentially, Philip Martin and many other economists and political scientists argue that guest working programs are meant to be a temporary solution to labor shortages (or in the United States' case, illegal immigration), but that guest working programs are rarely temporary and rarely provide a viable solution.

Works Cited

"The Austrian Freedom Party Platform."< http://www.providence.edu /polisci/students/ fpo/platform1.html>.

Berlinski, Claire. Menace in Europe: Why the Continent's Problem is Americas Too. New York: Crown Forum, 2006.

British National Party. "Rebuilding British Democracy: British National Party General Election Manifesto 2005." < http://www.bnp.org.uk/candidates2005/manifesto/ manf3.htm>.

"Charlemagne: Single Market Blues." The Economist, pg. 61. 11 Nov. 2006.

Dalbakk, Steinar. "Norway's Political Parties and the Norwegian Electoral System." Ministry of Foreign Affairs. < http://www.dep.no/odinarkiv/english/ stoltenberg_I/ud/032005-990426/dok-bn.html>.

Danish People's Party, The. "The Danish People's Party." < http://www. danskfolkeparti.dk/sw/frontend/show.asp?parent=3293>.

European Union, The. "United In Diversity." . 2 May 2007.

Flemish Interest Party. "The Manifest of the Vlaams Belang." < http://www.flemish republic.org/manifesto.htm>.

Henley, Jon. "The True Face of the National Front." The Guardian. 25 Apr. 2002.

< http://www.guardian.co.uk/france/story/0,11882,690101,00.html

James, Steve. "Norway's Far-Right Progress Party Splits." World Socialist Web Site. 25 Apr. 2001. < http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/apr2001/nor-a25.shtml>.

Landler, Mark. "Austria Turns, Slightly, to Left." New York Times. 1 Oct. 2006.

Martin, Philip. "There is Nothing More Permanent Than Temporary Foreign Workers." The Center for Immigration Studies. April 2001.

"Obituary: Oriana Fallaci." The Economist, pg. 97. 23 Sept. 2006.

Pierce, Dr. William and Wolfgang Keller. "Friends in Germany: The National Democratic Party." National Vanguard. 27 Sept. 2004. nationalvanguard.org/printer.php?id=3909>.

Piper, J. Richard. The Major Nation-States in the European Union. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2005.

Poggioli, Sylvia. "Europe's Right Turn: Anti-Immigrant Policy Boosts France's Le Pen Again." NPR. 22 Nov. 2006. < http://www.npr.org/templates/story/ story.php?storyId=6522463>.

---------------. "Europe's Right Turn: Danes' Anti-Immigrant Backlash Marks Radical Shift." NPR. 20 Nov. 2006. < http://www.npr.org/templates/story/ story.php?storyId=6505809>.

----------------. "Europe's Right Turn: Europe Looks Inward, Tilts to the Right." NPR. 20 Nov. 2006. < http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php? storyId=6505851>.

-----------------. "Europe's Right Turn: Popular Belgian Party Rejects Multicultural Society." NPR. 21 Nov. 2006. < http://www.npr.org/templates/ story/ story.php?storyId=6516192>.

"Poll Boost for German Far Right." BBC News. 18 Sept. 2006. .

Povoledo, Elisabetta. "Murder of a Muslim Prompts Anti-Immigrant Feelings in Italy." International Herald Tribune. 25 Aug. 2006.

Prengaman, Peter. "Immigration Rally Turnout Lower Than '06." Associated Press. 1 May 2007.

Smith, Tamsin. "Bossi Focuses Immigration Fears." BBC News. 10 May 2001. .

Weisman, Jonathan. "Bush Renews Efforts on Immigration: Overhaul Plan Faces Battle in Divided Congress." The Washington Post. April 8, 2007.

[1] Jonathan Weisman. "Bush Renews Efforts on Immigration: Overhaul Plan Faces Battle in Divided Congress." The Washington Post. April 8, 2007.

[2] Philip Martin. "There is Nothing More Permanent Than Temporary Foreign Workers." The Center for Immigration Studies. April 2001, 4.

[3] Philip Martin. "There is Nothing More Permanent Than Temporary Foreign Workers." The Center for Immigration Studies. April 2001, 5.

[4] Philip Martin. "There is Nothing More Permanent Than Temporary Foreign Workers." The Center for Immigration Studies. April 2001, 5.

[5] Berlinski, Claire. Menace in Europe: Why the Continent's Problem is Americas Too. (New York: Crown Forum, 2006), 134.

[6] Sylvia Piggioli. "Europe's Right Turn: Europe Looks Inward, Tilts to the Right." NPR. 20 Nov. 2006

[7] Claire Berlinski. Menace in Europe: Why the Continent's Problem is Americas Too. (New York: Crown Forum, 2006), 239-240.

[8] Richard J. Piper. The Major Nation-States in the European Union. (New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2005), 236.

[9] British National Party. "Rebuilding British Democracy: British National Party General Election Manifesto 2005

[10] The Austrian Freedom Party Platform, 2006.

[11] Mark Landler. "Austria Turns, Slightly, to Left." New York Times. 1 Oct. 2006.

[12] Mark Landler. "Austria Turns, Slightly, to Left." New York Times. 1 Oct. 2006.

[13] "Poll Boost for German Far Right." BBC News. 18 Sept. 2006.

[14] Dr. William Pierce and Wolfgang Keller. "Friends in Germany: The National Democratic Party." National Vanguard. 27 Sept. 2004, 2.

[15] Claire Berlinski. Menace in Europe: Why the Continent's Problem is Americas Too. (New York: Crown Forum, 2006), 35-36.

[16] Sylvia Poggioli. "Europe's Right Turn: Popular Belgian Party Rejects Multicultural Society." NPR. 21 Nov. 2006.

[17] Flemish Interest Party. "The Manifest of the Vlaams Belang".

[18] Sylvia Poggioli. "Europe's Right Turn: Popular Belgian Party Rejects Multicultural Society." NPR. 21 Nov. 2006

[19] Steinar Dalbakk. "Norway's Political Parties and the Norwegian Electoral System." Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 5..

[20] Steve James. "Norway's Far-Right Progress Party Splits." World Socialist Web Site. 25 Apr. 2001.

[21] Sylvia Poggioli. "Europe's Right Turn: Danes' Anti-Immigrant Backlash Marks Radical Shift." NPR. 20 Nov. 2006

[22] "Charlemagne: Single Market Blues." The Economist, pg. 61. 11 Nov. 2006.

[23] The Danish People's Party. "The Danish People's Party."

[24] Syliva Poggioli. "Europe's Right Turn: Anti-Immigrant Policy Boosts France's Le Pen Again." NPR. 22 Nov. 2006.

[25] J. Richard Piper. The Major Nation-States in the European Union. (New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2005), 94.

[26] Jon Henley. "The True Face of the National Front." The Guardian. 25 Apr. 2002, 2.

[27] Sylvia Poggioli, "Europe's Right Turn: Anti-Immigrant Policy Boosts France's Le Pen Again." NPR. 22 Nov. 2006

[28] Tamsin Smith. "Bossi Focuses Immigration Fears." BBC News. 10 May 2001.

[29] Elisabetta Povoledo. "Murder of a Muslim Prompts Anti-Immigrant Feelings in Italy." International Herald Tribune. 25 Aug. 2006

[30] "Obituary: Oriana Fallaci." The Economist, pg. 97. 23 Sept. 2006.

[31] Claire Berlinski. Menace in Europe: Why the Continent's Problem is Americas Too. (New York: Crown Forum, 2006), 35-36

[32] Berlinski, Claire. Menace in Europe: Why the Continent's Problem is Americas Too. (New York: Crown Forum, 2006), 113.

[33] Philip Martin. "There is Nothing More Permanent Than Temporary Foreign Workers." The Center for Immigration Studies. April 2001, 5.

[34] The European Union. "United in Diversity." 2 May 2007.

[35] Peter Prengaman. "Immigration Rally Turnout Lower Than '06." Associated Press. 1 May 2007.

[36] Philip Martin. "There is Nothing More Permanent Than Temporary Foreign Workers." The Center for Immigration Studies. April 2001, 5.