The Role of Ethnicity in Charles Johnson's Middle Passage

In his essay titled Ethnicity, Werner Sollors states that: "...ethnicity is typically based on a contrast," meaning that a person's ethnicity is the result of concluding that it is neither A nor B, therefore he must be C. Despite race or background, anyone can fit into a certain ethnicity as long as they don't fit into these A's or B's, as ethnicity is simply built on common bonds a group of people have together. Using this definition, the main character of Charles Johnson's Middle Passage, Rutherford Calhoun, has an obscure ethnicity, as he doesn't have all the traits to fulfill any of the ethnic archetypes 1830's New Orleans had, seeing as how he has traits from every ethnic background at the time.

Rutherford, an African American, grew up as a slave on a farm in southern Illinois with his brother Jackson. Jackson was more good-willed and law-abiding compared to Rutherford who preferred to do petty crimes like pick pocketing. Although still confined to a life of servitude, the owner of the farm he worked on, Peleg Chandler, treated them well as "we were the only family he had" (109). They worked more as simple servants to Chandler. They were even educated by him, learning various teachings and morals. When Chandler passed on, Rutherford and Jackson stood to inherit everything he had, however Jackson decided it would be best to split everything evenly between every servant owned by Chandler, something which Rutherford didn't like. His death also emancipated them, which allowed for Rutherford to part ways with Jackson and head down to New Orleans.

Since slavery was still legal and rampant in the United States in the 1830's, most Africans were uneducated, and even the few which were educated still weren't at the level Rutherford was since the two brothers were treated practically as sons. As a result of the education he received, Rutherford's speech and vocabulary are at higher levels than most people of this time period, as he uses very little slang throughout the course of the novel or in his writing (since it is later noted that he is suppose to be the author of the story we're reading), compared to the southern dialects of most Africans at the time which are very different from how Rutherford speaks. He was one of the few Africans who had their freedom and could engage in just about anything a white man could. He is also extremely luck, as the situation he found himself in the beginning of the novel is downright cheeky, as most people in debt didn't have the choice to marry a woman to clear all of her debts. All of these differences in characteristics eject him from being a true member of the African community or ethnicity, as one of the only similarities they have remaining is skin color.

If he doesn't fit into the African community, then the other dominant ethnicity in 1830's New Orleans are white people (decedents of the French or other Europeans). Although he has almost the same level of education as an average white man at the time (and the same liberties), Rutherford doesn't really fit into this community either unfortunately, as white people in the South at this time were inherently racist and Rutherford was still seen as possibly a slave despite having his freedom, shown later on when with Squibb a slave coffle walks by:

"'Better yuh keep your noodle down, Illinois.' He was instantly

sober, his grip on me tight as a winch. 'Or yuh'll be sold too.

Stolen right off the ship, I'm sayin', and pressed into a gang.

It's happened before.' He tugged a little at my sleeve. 'These

blokes don't know you're a sailor. And they don't care." (60)

Along with his skin color, his nasty tendencies to steal and do other small crimes only reinforce stereotypes against black people at the time, making him unable to be a true member of white ethnicity.

So where does Rutherford truly belong? Everyone needs an ethnicity, and his mixed character doesn't seem to fit into those of New Orleans. Perhaps this is (aside from avoiding debt and marriage) a small, subconscious reason why he decides to join a slave ship in the first place, to find who with and where he truly belongs, and it isn't until this voyage he discovers the Allmuseri, a native African tribe whose culture, customs and society he feels great admiration and respect toward. While the Allmuseri's race is still African, Rutherford isn't focused on race as their ethnicity is what appeals to him: "The more I thought on it, the Allmuseri seemed less a biological tribe than a clan held together by values. A certain vision" (109)

At first, his experience with the Allmuseri is generally positive. Befriending Ngonyama, he quickly learns much of their unique language while also learning about individual members of the ship and what they did before they were captured. He even develops a father-daughter relationship with Baleka, after her mother met an unfortunate demise during the voyage. This gives him the strongest sense of family he's had in years, as he hasn't connected with his brother for years and his father escaped from slavery and his family ages before. The color of his skin matches that of the Allmuseri, as seen when Rutherford talks with Ngonyama: "...his people saw whites as Raw Barbarians and me (being a colored mate) as a Cooked one" (75).

The biggest problem occurs when the Allmuseri decide to overthrow the ship in an attempt to save their lives from slavery. Most of the crew is killed during their battle, however Rutherford is one of the few kept alive as some of the Allmuseri trust him enough to try and get them home. He was also the only member who could connect with the remaining alive crew (Squibb, Cringle), so he was seen as useful (much like how in Melville's Benito Cereno, the title character was kept alive in an attempt to get supplies or possibly a new boat for the slaves who revolted). After starving for weeks, finally a storm wrecks the ship and Rutherford gets saved by another boat.

Their violent mutiny is understandable, as the Allmuseri community was falling ill, getting beaten or were even killed while the rest had to watch in horror. Those who were luck enough to survive would end up in slavery for the rest of their lives, so whatever chance they had to break away and try to make it back to their homeland was a worthwhile attempt, even if it broke the principles and foundations the tribe was established on.

I believe that in another version of the story, Rutherford would have fit in perfectly in the Allmuseri community, sharing with them their customs and among other things their ethnicity (or in the way Sollors defines it, he isn't black or white so he must be Allmuseri). He shares many traits with them, such as generally being a non-violent person. The mystical, otherworldly allure surrounding the Allmuseri could be compared with the inexplicable luck Rutherford has (the beginning alternative, followed by surviving a mutiny, an encounter with their God, living through a storm tearing apart and boat and miraculously being picked up the next day). Some of their culture even rubs off on Rutherford, such as in the end when he uses their martial arts capoeira on Santos: "...I sidestepped as I'd seen Atufal do, snatched his wrist and allowed Santos's propulsion to pitch him forward..... Nevertheless, this elegant and unexpected eruption of capoeira, which now seemed as natural to me as lifting my arm, was enough to sting his pride..." (193). All these connections to the Allmuseri lead me to believe he'd fit in better with them than he would with the white and black ethnicities of New Orleans at the time.