The Roman Army

The Roman army was made from a hierarchy of different divisions and ranks, the highest of which being a Legion that was headed by the Commander of the Legion, usually a citizen from the senatorial class picked by the Emperor, although there was exceptions from this in Egypt and from the start of the third century where an acting commander of the equestrian order was chosen. There was six tribunes that supported the Commander, the highest ranking of these was the tribunus laticlavius and the next a praefectus castrorum. The rest were called the tribuni angusticlavii. A Legion contained between 5000 and 6000 men, and not always used for war. Many soldiers were skilled engineers that helped build many of the magnificent constructions of the period.
The next division was a Cohort and usually ten of these fitted into a Legion, these have a heirachy of their own. The 1st Cohort was made from elite soldiers, the 6th from "the finest of the young men", 8th from "selective troops" and the 10th from "good troops". The weakest were the 2nd, 4th, 7th and 9th in which the new recruits were placed. A Cohort took orders from a pilus prior. Sets of three manipuli made a Cohort and were controlled by hastatus prior, princeps prior or pilus prior. Manipuli were made from two centuriae composing of 30 to 200 men (80 was the most common), cenuriones headed these, with optio. Centuriae were further broken down into contubernia.
In addition to this there were 120 Horsemen attached to each Legion along with administrators.

Training was one of the reasons why the Roman army was so successful, and it was taken very seriously, "The courage of a soldier is heightened by his knowledge of his profession, and he only wants an opportunity to execute what he is convinced he has been perfectly taught","We see that the Roman people conquered the world by no other means than training in the military arts, discipline in the camp and practice in warfare" Vegetius from the book De Re Militari 4thC AD. Applicants were screened for physical strength and applicants that could read, write and complete mathematical problems were singled out and trained for engineering or medical purposes. Before a soldier could train with weapons he had to have initial training, marching, running and leaping. A uniform and precise march was extremely important; it was tight, preventing a travelling army to be split. Running raised the fitness of the troops, a soldier was expected to complete 20 miles in 5 hours. A fit soldier was able to run at the enemy and catch them in pursuit. Leaping practice increased the chances of a soldier making it over a ditch or through rough terrain. Swimming also had to be carried out, whether the soldier was posted near the sea or not. Once these tasks had been completed weapon training would commence. They were first introduced to the sword. They trained with wooden versions twice the weight of the real thing, in belief that they would be twice as good when in real combat. The moves were used upon six foot high stakes and when the weapons trainer thought they were good enough they were paired off and practiced on one another. The armatura was an advanced training where soldiers would use wooden weapons closer to their real weight. After the sword was mastered they were introduced to the spear, again constructed of wood and twice its weight, they aimed at the six foot stakes. Though not ever being fully adopted by the Roman army (even though it proved itself in many battles) the bow was taught to a third or fourth of the fittest recruits. The sling and stone throwing was taught to every recruit, it was seen as a very useful weapon as more often than not the ammo was just picked from the ground. Vaulting was rehearsed heavily by the cavalry. Beginning with no weapons and progressing to mount with a full body of amour and weapons. Carrying heavy loads was a vital part of the soldiers roll, in addition to his weapons he carried a minimum sixty pounds. A short poem was written about the carrying of burdens:

The Roman soldiers, bred in war's alarms,
Bending with unjust loads and heavy arms,
Cheerful their toilsome marches undergo,
And pitch their sudden camp before the foe.

Virgil.

The Legionary soldier was paid 112.5 denarii per annum, not a very large wage. This was doubled to 225 denarii during the reign of Caesar, food and equipment was subtracted from this. In comparison centurions were paid a lot more, 3,750 denarii for the lowest ranking and 15,000 for the centurion of the highest rank.

A Legionary soldier was initially expected to serve a maximum of 16 years, this could include building, constructing and tending to the wounded. At a latter date this was raised to 16 years and then 4 years on reserve. Then under the reign of Augustus 20 years of service was required. It was then raised again to 25-26 years. Despite these raises the troops stayed incredibly loyal, "For they, on entering military service, swear an oath to value the safety of the emperor above everything" Discourses, Epicetus 1st-2nd C AD.

Members of the Roman army received various types of awards, usually depending on their rank. Soldiers and officers beneath a centurion were allowed to receive money from the riches of a successful conquest. They may have also been decorated with phalerae (small discs made from precious metal worn on the breastplate for ceremonial purposes), torques (gold necklaces) or armilla (armband). On completion of their service they may have also been given land, a pension and the right to marry. Auxiliaries where given a Roman citizenship, two bronze plates describing their new citizenship and right to marry. In addition to this centurions could be awarded with different crowns, the corona aurea was plain gold. The first centurion to make it over the walls of a besieged city received a corona muralis. Officers higher up the hierarchy could receive a vexillum, a small silver replica of the standard or a hasta pura, a silver spear used for ceremonial purposes. The highest award that could be given to an officer below the general was the corona obsidionalis, made from grass like vegetation, it was given to whom delivered a besieged army. Conquering Generals received the uppermost reward, the triumphus. During the empire it was restricted to Imperial family members, but the Republic allowed for any General seen worthy in the eyes of the senate to receive it. It was a march through Rome to the temple of Jupitus. The procession started with horn blowers and sacrifices of white bulls, which was followed by the captured goods of the conquest including chained slaves. The legionary soldiers followed ceremonially dressed along with the general at the rear. He was carried in a chariot pulled by four horses and dressed in purple robes with gold detail, in his hand was a scepter and on his head was a crown of laurel leaves. This depicted him as god-like, so a slave held a gold crown above his head to ensure he still knew he was a mortal. To commemorate these events coins were struck and a triumphal arch was built. One award that could be given to a soldier of any rank was the corona civica, it was made from oak leaves and presented for saving the life of a Roman citizen.

As well as awards, punishments were also carried out. Discipline was strict and punishments were harsh. Minor offenses could cause a soldier to have his food rationed, public flogging or a hit from the centurion's staff.
The Roman army used many pieces of equipment and weaponry, some far ahead of its time. I have compiled a list and explanation below,
•Amentum- A throng attached to a spear to allow greater length and accuracy when throwing
•Aquila- A large pole with a statue depicting the Legions standard, it was carried by the standard bearer.
•Arcus- A bow.
•Ballista- A long device that fired arrows or stones, it worked by using torsion power, derived from two skeins of twisted cord acting on two arms.
•Bracae- Trousers, only worn by high-ranking officers in cold conditions. Made from skin tight wool or leather.
•Caligae- Sandals made from leather, soldiers placed studs on the bottom for extra traction and treading over the enemy when advancing.
•Cingulum militare- A leather belt which carried a sheath and the pugio.
•Focale- A scarf used to stop amour pinching the skin.
•Funda- A sling used for throwing stones.
•Galea- The famous helmet, optimized for the protection of the soldier. It sat two inches away from the soldier's head preventing objects denting and injuring the skull. A ridge on the forehead prevented sword blows from cutting the front of the helmet open. Two hinged side plates protected the side jaw and cheekbones, a neck guard prevented missiles bouncing of shields from hitting the neck. The plume of red horsehair was only used for ceremonial purposes.
•Gladius- Is a short sword, measuring 24 inches long. There were four different types Mainz, Fulham, Pompeii and Hispaniensis, mainly referring to where they were found, there were few differences. It was made from soft iron that was carburized using coal dust. The blade was double edged and pointed into a V shape to give maximum efficiency while stabbing.
•Hasta- A spear made from ash and iron that was used in the early army, it was superseded by the Gladius and Pilum (throwing spear). It was commonly used in ceremonies as decoration.
•Lancea- A spear used for throwing.
•Loculus- A small bag that held miscellaneous items, made from leather it measured 16 by 18 inches.
•Lorica hamata- Chainmail armour issued to Auxiliary troops. Made from several thousand bronze or iron rings, if well kept, it would last many decades.
•Lorica segmentata- Armour of a Roman soldier, it consisted of iron or steel plates arranged horizontally across the upper body. Several modifications were made to the amour creating three different types, the Kalkriese (c. 20 B.C. to A.D. 50), Corbridge (c. A.D. 40 to A.D. 120), and Newstead (c. A.D. 120 to 250).
•Lorica squamata- Scaled amour made from bronze or steel beaten pieces of metal sown onto a shirt. The scales overlapped facing downwards. It was worn by all sorts of Roman soldiers, but mainly by standard bearers, musicians, auxiliary and cavalry troops.
•Onager- A catapult that was used to destroyed forts, it fired large rocks, sometimes covered in flammable substances and set alight. It worked using torsion from a twisted rope, which was attached to a piece of wood protruding at a vertical angle from the base of the weapon.
•Pilum- A throwing spear 6ft long with pyramidal metal tip. Soldiers carrier two and were instructed to throw one after the other into the enemy before engaging them in combat. In case of use as a melee weapon a hang guard was fitted. Some versions were fitted with lead to increase the amour piercing ability, later versions had shanks that bent on impact to render is useless to the enemy.
•Pugio- A dagger used as a back up weapon if all other had been lost.
•Sagittae- Arrows, "The excellence of the shaft consisted in being long and at the same time straight, and, if it was of light wood, in being well polished" (Hes. Scut. 133). Variations of arrows included aduncae (barbed) and venenatae (poisoned).
•Sagum or Paenula- A cloak protecting soldiers from harsh weather conditions. Made from leather (paenula scortae) or heavy felt (paenula gausapina). It was worn by placing the head through the central hole and letting it drape. It usually had a hood attached.
•Scutum- A shield, most commonly of which was the semi cylindrical design used by the standard Roman soldier. It was made from steaming wood over a cylindrical shape and overlapping them together. It measured 48 inches high, a chord of 26 inches and a thickness of a ¼ of an inch. The large metal stud in the centre was made from brass, bronze or iron and was used offensively and as part of a combination attack, where the soldier would hit and stun the enemy then stab them with his Gladius. Due to its shape arrows and missiles would glance off, its shape also allowed for the testudo (tortoise) manoeuvre, where soldiers would form an impenetrable unit by raising the shields above their heads in situ with other soldiers to protect from aerial attacks. Later versions lost their curvature.
•Siege Engines- Devices used to overcome the defenses of a fortress. Most common was the battering ram, a large, heavy log mounted on a mobile base that was pushed into the fort gate. Agger or earth mounds were built to help climb over the walls; shelters called vinea protected soldiers building these. Siege towers, large wooden structures the height of the wall, were also used to allow soldiers to get into the fort. Its tower like shape allowed for soldiers to accumulate inside and drop a gangplank onto the wall and walk across. The top of the tower also gave bowmen a platform to fire from.
•Siege Hook- A weapon used to pull stones from the enemy wall, it is mention by Polybius "and putting iron hooks upon the sickles and hauling them inside the walls, so that the poles to which they were fastened broke against the battlements".
•Spatha- A long sword of approximately 33 inches, introduced in the latter armies and used by the cavalry (eventually adopted by the standard soldier). Advanced versions called Lombard were very advanced of their time, using a composite material, layers of iron and steel.

Gnaeus Julius Agricola was an extremely successful soldier and politician. Born in southern France in 40 A.D., the son of a wealthy family. He became very accomplished, winning the titles of Quaestor in Asia (AD 64), People's Tribune (AD 66) and Praetor (AD 68). He was most famed for the conquering the remote regions of Britain, namely Wales and Scotland, where he triumphed over the undefeated Caledonians. Eventually he became a victim of his own success and the Emperor Domitian's jealousy, recalled from Britain, the rest of his life was spent in exile.

The Roman army used a complex and well designed fortress of which four types existed. A Marching camp was used for an overnight stay in enemy territory, a small trench surrounded the perimeter. Auxiliary forts contained the auxiliaries, made from stone or timber, they had a complex defence system of many ditches and a high rampart. Legionary forts housed the regular soldiers for long periods of time that ranged from tens to hundreds of years. It way designed to accommodate a whole legion and took up around fifty acres of space. They were heavily fortified with large stonewalls and deep ditches, although forts that were only used for a short amount of time had timber defences. Vexillation forts were used for tactical purposes, they had the capacity for half a legion. They were used for a short period of time, but sometimes reoccupied as needed.

The basic shape of the fort changed throughout the history of the army, the earliest were shaped rectangular with rounded edges. It evolved into a square shape and finally to an oval shape. There was three common factors every fort or camp contained, a fosse (ditch), agger (inner rampart) and a vallum (surrounding wall usually made of wood). The inside of the camp was sectioned into three parts,
1.The Praetentura was facing towards the enemy, the most superior troops were positioned here, that of the 1st cohort, so that they would be the first to protect the base.
2.The Praetorium was located in the centre of the camp and contained the commanding officer. The outer part housed the stores, workshops, hospitals and similar. Any artillery not used for defending the encampment was also placed here.
3.The Retentura was at the rear, the weakest cohorts were located here along with the cavalry, to give them a chance to mount in an attack.

Connecting the insides of the encampment were designated roads, Via Decumana started in the centre of the praetorium and ended at the far end of the retentura, cutting it in half. Via Sagularis followed the perimeter of the camp providing access to the defenses. Via Quintana separated the praetorium and the retentura meeting the Via Sagularis at 90 degrees. Via Principalis divided the praetorium and praetorium and met the Via Sagularis at a right angle. Via Praetoria ran through the middle of the praetenura finishing in the centre of the camp.

In comparison with today's modern armies the Roman Army's hierarchical structure bears a significant resemblance. The Roman's contubernia matches a modern day squad both contain roughly 8 men, as do the centuriae and company, Cohort and battalion, Legion and brigade. The only difference being the modern day army consist of higher divisions made from many brigades, due to the ability to mobilize quickly using modern transport.