The Will of Heaven and the Will of Man in the Mencius

Throughout the often enigmatic text of the Mencius there can be seen what might be construed as a persistent contradiction regarding the manner by which the agency of Heaven is manifest in the affairs of humankind. While it is relatively clear that this agency must come into play somehow in order for a people to be well-ruled, we are presented with two essential models of this process. First is a sort of 'from-the-top-down' structure, in which the rectification of the ruler with the will of Heaven proceeds downward, leading to the eventual rectification of the people. Second, conversely, seems like more of a 'from-the-bottom-up' expansion, where the rectification of individuals spreads to the ruler from below. While one can easily dismiss the suggested contradiction with the idea that these two processes would in fact accelerate one another, the fact of their difference is significant enough to warrant further investigation. Indeed, in exploring the relationship of Heaven and ethical rule, only from both of these two distinct vantages can a fuller understanding be achieved. That is, namely, that the Mencius describes a human ethics in which the will of Man accords with the will of Heaven, and moreover, in which both wills are revealed as one.

"Mencius said, ... 'When the prince is benevolent, everyone else is benevolent; when the prince is dutiful, everyone else is dutiful; when the prince is correct, everyone else is correct. Simply by rectifying the prince one can put the state on a firm basis.'" (Mencius IV.A.20) Here, the idea of top-down rectification is fairly simply described. Like a waterfall upon boulders, the virtue of the ruler becomes present in all levels of his domain; these are, in Mencius' terms, the empire, the state or province, the family, and the man. (While the man is presumably the patriarchal head of household, for our purposes he may be considered simply as the individual.) Such a ruler can truly be called the Son of Heaven, and it is an appropriate designation for a king who, by becoming rectified (with the will of Heaven) and thus virtuous, becomes Heaven's agent.
In this model, the ruler is the locus of manifestation of Heaven's will by embodying the virtues (especially benevolence) whose espousal is the core of Classicist teaching. He serves as the conduit at the very top of the hierarchical society through which these heavenly qualities filter down, like the bottleneck of an hourglass whose chambers are Heaven and Earth.

For the individual subject to such a ruler, he may become virtuous himself as a follower of his exemplar prince. In such an instance, both the 'top-down' and 'bottom-up' processes may be occurring, for the subject who has been rectified by the Son of Heaven's example may in turn inspire virtue in others. In the absence of ethical rule, however, with no sage-king upon the throne, the individual must rectify himself out of necessity, for, as is often noted, if he is not in order himself he cannot put his affairs in order. Thus, by self-cultivation - the object of Classicist study - he becomes benevolent, dutiful, &c., and his family, the state in which he lives, and the whole empire and its ruler, moved by his example, ideally follow suit. "Mencius said, 'There is a common expression, "The Empire, the state, the family". The Empire has its basis in the state, the state in the family, and the family in one's own self.'" (Mencius IV.A.5) Though the idealism of this model is easily criticized, it is not impractical, nor foolishly lofty. Certainly the virtue of one common man alone is unlikely to be able to cause the rectification of the whole empire, just as the harvest of one farmer alone is unlikely to be able to feed the whole empire. Yet, the harvests of many farmers are able to feed everyone; so too with the rectification of individuals and their families.

Even making this cursory examination, it may already be clear that in both models, ethical rule proceeds from the rectification of an individual (or many individuals). A bit of similarity begins to emerge between the man cultivating himself through study and the Son of Heaven; in fact, one may begin to wonder what the difference is. Consideration leads one to conclude that the position of the rectified ruler is what separates him from any other sagely person. Indeed, Mencius often speaks of how anyone could become a Yao or a Shun, and rule the empire peerlessly through self-cultivation of virtue and adherence to the rites. At this point, speaking of "Heaven's agency" becomes really troublesome, for the word has such a multiplicity of meanings - the Lord on High, the community of spirit beings, the actual realm of gods and spirit beings, the sky itself - that without becoming much more specific, speaking of Heaven at all, and of its will, is rather unclear. Fortunately, Mencius provides us a solution: "One who has the Way will have many to support him... [he] will have the whole Empire at his behest." (Mencius II.B.1) It is with the Way, then, that a person, be he a sagely commoner or a sagely king, becomes rectified. The Way is above the Heaven from which is received the sweet rain of benevolence; they Way is below the Earth from which the self-cultivating man grows his virtue.

Discovering this view, the two models for the direction of the spread of accord with the will of Heaven (that is, 'possession' of the Way) become much less important than the manner in which one comes to be rectified. Mencius provides throughout the text two ways for this process: in a word, from without, or from within. The person rectified from without is the exemplar-follower who makes possible the top-down model discussed above. A good illustration is the story of the death of Duke Ding (Ting) and the reluctance of his court to observe the three years of mourning recommended by Mencius to the crown prince. (Mencius III.A.2) Afraid that the courtiers "may not give their best," Mencius quotes Confucius: "'The gentleman's virtue is like wind; the virtue of the common people is like grass. Let the wind sweep over the grass, and the grass is sure to bend.'" Taking this to heart, the prince "For five months ... stayed in his mourning hut, issuing no orders or prohibitions. The officials and his kinsmen approved of his actions and thought him well-versed in the rites." In this instance, Mencius' sage advice is an example for the crown prince, whose sagely conduct becomes an example for his people.

Without a direct example, however, a person may study the legacy of the ancients and sages of old, particularly their writings or the writings of others about them - such as the Four Books. Even with such writings, though (and especially without them), self-cultivation can come simply through studying one's surroundings, for the Way is in Heaven and Earth, and all that lies between.

Realizing that one can cultivate oneself to accord with the Way by observing it in a sagely exemplar, or by observing it in the world generally, one question remains: how a person can observe the Way, exactly. As we can read and watch with our eyes, listen with our ears, and write and touch with our hands, Mencius reminds us that we've an organ which can perceive the Way - the heart. "No man is devoid of a heart", he tells us, and further, through the heart the virtues of benevolence, dutifulness, observance of the rites, and wisdom are cultivated. (Mencius II.A.6) More importantly, however, is the identification of the heart as the true locus of connection with Heaven and the Way. He says, "'For a man to give full realization to his heart is for him to understand his own nature, and a man who knows his own nature will know Heaven. By retaining his heart and nurturing his nature he is serving Heaven.'" (Mencius VII.A.1) Not only is man connected to Heaven, but his nature is the same; his nature is the Way.

Thus, sharing the heart of Heaven, a person can come to embody the Way when he first observes it outside himself, and is reminded thereby that it is within him as well. Following the will of Heaven becomes the easiest thing in the world when one sees that this will is naturally the same as one's own. Any person, then, can learn ethical rule from the Way of Heaven, the Way of Earth, the Way of his own heart. His virtue can pervade his family, state, empire, and guide his ruler, or he can himself fitly rule the empire as easily as rolling it in his palm.