The World-wide Resurgence of Religious Fundamentalism

Fundamentalism was initially categorized as the beliefs connected to the religious movement among American Protestants, but today the term is associated with a variety of religions and states. Although definitions for the concept of fundamentalism vary, in this context it is generally accepted that fundamentalism is the return to, and the strict devotion to fundamental principles (often a sacred text) of a certain religion or state. Over the past couple of decades, the world has seen a resurgence of fundamentalism, particularly within the Islamic community post September 11. This paper aims to determine the defining features of Islamic, Christian and Hindu fundamentalism and thus reveal any similarities and differences between each. The paper will also discuss what Islamic, Christian and Hindu fundamentalism implies for democracy and democratization.

Islamic fundamentalism is a fusion of politics and religion, and comprises of the philosophy that all aspects of life should incorporate the practices and teachings of Islam law, or shari'a. Over the years, predominantly after September 11, 2001, there have been significant changes in the political environment surrounding the Islamic and Muslim community. Some factors which appear to have contributed to this include the post-independence failed political and economic models, structural anti-Westernism, the decentralisation of religious authority in Sunni Islam, and of course a catalytic event was September 11 and the following global war on terrorism.[1] Islamic fundamentalists have varying ideas and purposes, and a distinction can be made between those who have political goals and those who place emphasis on religious and personal dedication.[2]existent, and it is extremely difficult to refuse to acknowledge Islam.[4]behaviour are high, especially in matters relating to the role of women. Fundamentalists hold the extreme belief that any person who commits apostasy from Islam must be killed, and they also strongly oppose Westernism. The desire for power and creating an Islamic nation-state is perceived by fundamentalists as "...not something that can be divided or shared with other groups, persons or institutions."[5] Hence, it can be expected that violence and terrorism against those who resist is often associated with Islamic fundamentalism, and it can be suggested that they believe a better world can only be achieved through armed struggle. The desire for political and religious power, along with the violence and aggression that follows, is a defining feature of Islamic fundamentalism, which suggests that it significantly affects any chance of democratization. Expectations of social Generally, Islamic fundamentalists offer a religious approach to political power, and rather than simply being simply a movement based on the literal translation of scripts (the Quran and the sunna), it is the aspiration for power to compel mankind into obeying God's commands.[3] To gain insight into the nature of Islamic fundamentalism it must be understood that political and religious freedom in the Middle East is almost non-

Christian fundamentalism is also a movement based on the strict adherence to literal translations of doctrines and the Bible. It began in the late 19^th century during the Protestant movement which opposed modern scientific theory and philosophy being applied to the Christian doctrine, and was initially unique to the United States but is now spreading globally. These fundamentalists have come out of socially conservative evangelical Protestantism, and include a wide mixture of denominations and independent churches. Despite the Christian faith being spread over a variety of nations, fundamentalism is predominantly American which allows them access to great influence and power.[6] Christian fundamentalists are similar to Islamic in the sense that they attempt to enforce their beliefs on others and those who oppose them. However, Christian fundamentalism tends to have more of a cultural influence through the use of the media, consumerism and mass communication.[7] The common features and beliefs of Christian fundamentalism include a relationship between the believer and Jesus which leads them to convert others in His name, the idea that the sacred words of God found in the Bible are enough to base everything in life on, strict social behaviour expectations such as refraining from drinking alcohol, and a socially conservative perspective. Similarly to Islamic fundamentalism, Christian fundamentalism also places a restriction on women, and maintains the idea that they are subordinate to men. [8] Christian fundamentalists play an active role in society, by voicing their opinions on political and ethical issues and often attempting to persuade others to comply with their ideas. "Astute entrepreneurs are successfully selling a new international belief system."[9] Christian fundamentalism involves the aspiration for the power to spread their beliefs globally, and the use of the Bible to have control over behaviour and every aspect of life.

The beliefs and characteristics of Hindu fundamentalism appear to be significantly different to Islamic or Christian fundamentalism, and it is difficult to make a satisfactory comparison. The religious aspect to the so-called Hindu fundamentalism appears to be missing, and rather there is a nationalism and national identity approach if anything. Movements which are associated with Hindu nationalism are referred to as Hindutva. Unlike Christianity or Islamic fundamentalism, Hindu fundamentalism cannot be strictly based on sacred scriptures or the word of a set God. This is due to their many forms and names for God, and they do not have one set scripture which they base their religion on. [10] The four Vedas are generally considered their primary scriptures, but they also accept other sacred books such as Ramayana, Puranas and Geeta. Therefore it is impossible for them to have a fundamentalist attitude as they are very open and accepting to different beliefs; a belief in God is not even necessary for Hinduism which can be seen in the Sankhya Hindu system. The Hindu religion does not insist that it is the only true religion as they believe despite other religions having different beliefs; they all have the same purpose.[11] The discussion of Hindu fundamentalism seems to imply that it is simply an idea created by certain groups of people due to the rise in other forms of fundamentalism around the world.

From looking at the aspects of various fundamentalist groups, the effects on democracy and democratisation can be suggested. The concept of a democracy revolves around the idea that citizens "...should, in some way, exercise substantial control over the decisions made by the states and governments."[12] Fundamentalists believe that all persons must abide by strict principles and ideals that are set out for them, and they must conform to what is seen as acceptable behaviour. For example, the Islamic fundamentalists do not accept any person or group of people who oppose their principles, so in a fundamentalist state it can be assumed the citizens would have no control over any decision making. Democracy involves the allowance of political opposition and competition, and the acknowledgment of democratic principles.[13] Fundamentalism is in direct opposition to this philosophy as it promotes an authoritarian and autocratic political system. There is one group of people who wish to gain power, with one set of beliefs which they would persuade every member of that nation to comply with. This idea does not fit with the concept of political competition within a democracy. Along with the formal processes involved in a democracy, there is "...also freedom of expression, association, and religion and an independent judiciary-in short, the infrastructure of democratic political processes."[14]The process of democratisation is the movement away from an autocratic or authoritarian political system towards a democracy, and although it is not globally practiced, it has generally become to be considered as the right political system.[15] Fundamentalism contributes to preventing democratisation occurring as it attacks the government thus destabilising it. Islamic fundamentalism is perhaps the most significant movement which acts against democracy and democratisation. To promote democracy in Muslim communities the extremist and violent groups would need to be countered.[16] As can be seen with Islamic and Christian fundamentalism, a nation under their rule would be lacking any kind of freedom.

Islamic and Christian fundamentalisms are very similar in nature; each has a mixture of authoritarian and egalitarian tendencies that are concerned solely on absolute belief systems which affect their political, social and economical environment. The main differences are found in the way they each enforce their beliefs on others, with Islam using violence to gain power and Christianity using consumerism and their position in one of the most influential and powerful countries, the United States. Hindu fundamentalism appears to simply be a product of imagination that has come from too much discussion and attention given to this idea of religious fundamentalism. Fundamentalist beliefs appear to be in contrast with what is appropriate for democracy and democratization. The extremist groups which take violent and forceful action against the government and against those who oppose them are most likely preventing the process of democratization, whereas those groups which take more subtle action are merely weakening it.

[1] Angel M. Rabasa, 'Muslim world after 9/11', Rand, http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2004/RAND_MG246.pdf, Accessed 1 June 2008.

[2] Angel M. Rabasa, 'Muslim world after 9/11'

[3] Johannes J.G. Jansen, The Dual Nature of Islamic Fundamentalism, (New York: Cornell University Press, 1997), p 5.

[4] Johannes J.G. Jansen, The Dual Nature of Islamic Fundamentalism

[5] Johannes J.G. Jansen, The Dual Nature of Islamic Fundamentalism, p 2.

[6] Steve Brouwer, Paul Gifford, Susan D. Rose, Exporting the American Gospel Global Christian Fundamentalism, (New York and London: Routledge, 1996)

[7] Steve Brouwer, Paul Gifford, Susan D. Rose, Exporting the American Gospel Global Christian Fundamentalism

[8] Steve Brouwer, Paul Gifford, Susan D. Rose, Exporting the American Gospel Global Christian Fundamentalism

[9] Steve Brouwer, Paul Gifford, Susan D. Rose, Exporting the American Gospel Global Christian Fundamentalism

[10] David Frawley, 'Hindu Fundamentalism: Does it really exist?', Angelfire, http://www.angelfire.com/ca/Hinduism/frawley.html, Accessed 2 June 2008.

[11] Adhopia, 'Hindu Fundamentalism: Does it really exist?', Boloji, http://www.boloji.com/analysis/016.htm, Accessed 2 June 2008.

[12] William A. Joseph, Mark Kesselman and Joel Krieger, Introduction to Comparative Politics, (USA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007), p 17.

[13] William A. Joseph, Mark Kesselman and Joel Krieger, Introduction to Comparative Politics.

[14] Angel M. Rabasa, 'Muslim world after 9/11', Rand, p 6.

[15] William A. Joseph, Mark Kesselman and Joel Krieger, Introduction to Comparative Politics.

[16] Angel M. Rabasa, 'Muslim world after 9/11', Rand,