THORNDIKE'S LAWS of LEARNING

The basis of Edward Thorndike's approach to problems of behavior lay in his belief that human behavior could be analyzed and studied in terms of S-R units. The essence of behavior was to be found in the initiation of an even and an individual's reaction
To them. As a behaviorist, Thorndike views learning in terms of establishing connection or bond between stimulus and responses. Humans only differ from other animal their greater capacity to make associations.

EDWARD THORNDIKE'S EXPERIMENTS

Thorndike investigated learning in animals by using cats. A hungry cat was confined in a puzzle box with food visible on the outside. He presented it a problem, which required the cat to manipulate some devices, which would open the gate of the puzzle box.
Bits of food were placed outside the box as an incentive for the cat to open the gate. From such experiments, Thorndike made the following observations.

The cat first behaved aimlessly as if doing things by trial and error.
It then responded correctly by accident (chance success) and finally, repeated the successful operation
Consuming the food (satisfier) rewarded it.
Getting the reward strengthens the connection between the stimuli and the response made just before the reward (satisfier) was given.

From the above observations. Thorndike formulated three major laws, namely: law of effect, law of readiness and law of exercise

LAW OF EFFECT

The law of effect states that the association between a stimulus and a response will strengthen or weakened depending on whether a satisfier or an annoyer follows the response (Gibson, 1980). An act, which is followed by satisfaction in a given situation, will generally
Become associated with that situation; so that when it recurs the act will also be likely to recur (Curzon, 1981). On the other, an act, which results in discomfort, tends to be disassociated from the situation, so that when the situation recurs, the act will be less likely to recur.
The greater the satisfaction or discomfort experienced, the greater the degree to which the S-R bond will be strengthened or loosened.
After research studies have showed that this explanation was inadequate, Thorndike propounded another law, the truncated law of effect. This law added the idea that while satisfiers always strengthens the bond between a stimulus and a response, the effect of annoyers
Is much less predictable; sometime they weaken the bond, but sometimes they do not.

LAW OF EXERCISE

The law of exercise states that response to a situation may be strongly connected with the situation depending on the number of times it has been so connected and to the average strength and duration of the connection. The exercise here refers to practice. Practice they say makes
Perfect. In a later revision of the law, Thorndike asserts that practice in itself did not make perfect, but practice in circumstances that allowed the learner to be informed or given comments about his progress could be valuable in strengthening the S-R links

LAW OF READINESS

The law of readiness states that a learner's satisfaction determined by the extent of his preparatory set, that is, his readiness for action. This law was summarized into two:

When someone is ready to perform an act to do so is satisfying.

When someone is ready to perform some act, not do so is annoying. An interference with goal-directed behavior causes frustration and making someone to do something he does not want to do is frustrating

SUBSIDIARY LAWS

Thorndike also outlines other subsidiary law (Curzon, 1981). They include the following:

Law of Multiple Responses. A response, which fails to produce satisfaction, will trigger off another until success results and learning becomes possible

Law of Set. The individual's total attitude or disposition affects learning.

Law of Response Analogy. A Person's response to a novel situation is determined by innate tendencies to respond and by elements in similar situations to which he has acquired responses in the past.

Law of Selectivity of Response. As an animal learns, it becomes capable of ignoring some aspects of a problem and responding to others.

Law of Associative Shifting. A learner first responds to a given stimulus, then transfers the responses, but association, to another stimulus.

Law of Spread Effect. If an act had pleasurable consequences, the pleasure tended top become associated with not only the act and the eliciting stimulus, but also with other actions, which occurred approximately, the same point in time.

IMPLICATION OF THORNDIKE'S THEORY TO THE CLASSROOM

Reward is important in learning. It strengthens the occurrence of behavior a follows.

Practice and repetition is vital in the learning process. However, practice efforts should accompanied by feedback

The law of readiness stresses the importance of preparation for learning. The teacher must wait until learner is ready to learn and should give those experiences which help to enhance readiness. Preparatory experience that will hasten the development
Of readiness can be provided in elementary classes.

OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING

B.F. Skinner propounded the operant conditioning theory of learning. Operant conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its positive or negative consequences (Feldman, 1996). The procedure is based
On the principle of reinforcement whereby the consequences of a response determine whether that response will persist. The law of operant conditioning states that if the occurrence of an operant is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus, the strength/
Probability is increased. An operant is a set of acts, which constitutes an organism's voluntary behavior. Examples of operant acts include an animal raising it head, pressing a lever, lifting of leg, etc, and the approach is operant conditioning because an organism operates
On the environment in order to cause certain consequences. It is also called instrumental conditioning because certain responses or instruments are essential in leading or reward.
Skinner classified behavior into respondent and operant. The respondent behavior is the summation of those responses, which can be identified with specific eliciting stimuli. The operant refers to that behavior which is consistently elicited by particular stimuli.
Rather the organism operates or acts on the environment to generate specific consequences. In operant conditioning, the important stimulus is that which immediately follow the response

B . F. Skinner used an apparatus, the Skinner box, to demonstrate operant conditioning in animals. A hungry ( unconditioned) rat is allowed explored the box, when the rate spontaneously presses a small lever, the experimenter drops a pellet of food from an aperture
Into a try for the animal to eat. Repeatedly the animally acquires the habit of pressing the lever presentation of food.

SKINNER AND LEARNING PROCESS

Learning according to Skinner is the creation of conditioned connection between the learner's operant behavior and its reinforcement. An organism learns by production changes in it environment. The changes are followed by a particular consequence. The consequence
(Pleasant or unpleasant) determines whether that operant behavior will be repeated. The strength of a learned response is generally determined by the amount of reinforcement that it receives

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT

The basic principle of operant conditioning is that response that are reinforce are more likely to be repeated that those that are not reinforced. All behaviors are accompanied by certain consequences, and these consequences strongly influence whether or not these behaviors
Are repeated and at what level of intensity. The consequences follow behavior is either positive or negative. When consequences strengthened a preceding behavior, the term reinforcement is used. There are positive and negative forms of reinforcement. When the consequences
Weaken a preceding behavior, the terms punishment and extinction is used.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

This is the termination or withdrawal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforce) contingent upon the performance of a desired behavior. A negative reinforce is a stimulus which, when taken away from a situation, increases the probability of a response occurring. The negative reinforce refers
To those things the organism dislikes such as electric shock, pinching, scolding, nagging, etc. The effect of negative reinforces depends on their termination (Silverman, 1978)

The Cessation of negative reinforces increases the frequency of a response that leads to escape from the negative reinforces. Negative reinforces are effective only when there is a change to escape them. That chance according to Gibson (1980) is obvious to the individual. For example,
When a bell is sounded, a shock is applied to a dog's leg. The dog can stop the shock by lifting its leg. With time, the dog learns to quickly lift its leg whenever the bell sounds. The dog is negatively reinforced if it lifts its leg in order to cancel the electric shock.

PUNISHMENT

To punish is to present unpleasant or painful stimuli in order to decrease the probability that a preceding behavior will occur. Punishment is a consequence that decreases the future occurrence of the behavior that produces it. Punishment can be administered in two forms (Smith, Sarandon, and Sara son, 1986).
The first, aversive punishment, is carried out by applying aversive (unpleasant) stimuli, such as painful slaps , shaming, scolding, verbal reprimands, etc. The second is done by taking awaking positive reinforces, such as privileges, social interactions, or possessions. This Second form of punishment is known as
Response cost.

Punishment and negative reinforcement both involve the use of aversive stimuli. While negative reinforcement requires the termination aversive stimuli, punishment is a presentation of aversive stimuli. Negative reinforcement strengthens a response while punishment weakens or suppresses it.

GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS IS TRANSITION FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOOD

The period of adolescence is termed "the Crisis period" with its attendant stress and conflicts which are exhibited in different forms of worries and concern. Some of these concerns according to Havighurst (1972) are as listed below.

Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexes

Achieving masculine and feminine social roles

Accepting one physique and using the body effectively

Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults

Achieving assurance of economic independence

Selecting and preparation for an occupation

Preparing for marriage and family life

Development skills and concepts necessary for epic competence

Desiring and achieving social responsible behavior

Acquiring a set of values and ethical system as a guide to behavior i.e. development an ideology. Apart from the above enumerated concerns there are some basic and fundamental problems that confront adolescent which include

IDENTITY FORMATION: This is the first crucial concern of Adolescents. The search for self is unending and at the same time frustrating. The self is the sum total of a person's idea and attitude about whom and what he is. His problem is compounded
When sometimes he behaves like adult and he is accepted and at mother time he is told that he is not matured for such yet.

EFFECT OF PEER ON ADOLESCENCE

Adolescent have lesser dependent on parents but draws comfort from members of his age group and they provide support and security for him The influence of peers may be negative or positive especially when the needs of adolescents are not met. Teachers and parents
Are advised to watch the peer group which the children belong to. Efforts should be made to disband peer where there are bad elements.

ABNORMAL USE OF ALCOHOL AND DRUGS

This is a behavior some adolescents learn from their peers or influence by significant others. Once this habit starts it becomes difficult to stop and it may lead to drop addiction and it s attendant problem like mental disorder may follow.

FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING READINESS

1. Maturation. A child who has not reached a sufficient stage of mental and physical development when he tries to
Perform school tasks characteristic of that stage and that, which entails a higher level of development. However
With proper readiness building procedure, normal development difficulties can be over come.

2. Experience. Previous experience determines a child's readiness for learning prior exposure to basic skills is necessary
Before complex tasks are tackled.

3. Relevance of materials and methods of instruction. Research has shown that children are more ready to learn materials that
Meets their needs and fits their already established interests. Children are more ready to learn skills of spelling, reading and
Writing when they are having fun doing

4. Emotional attitude and personal adjustment. Emotional stress blocks readiness for learning especially those resulting from
Unmet needs, overprotection, rejection in the home, previous experience of school failure, and other home difficulties.

Building Learning Readiness

This process begins before the child even enters school. The parents should provide books, drawing, reading, and writing materials at
Home. The children should have knowledge about books, pictures, and rudiments of writing. From childhood through school, children should
Be exposed to skills both for their immediate usefulness and for their preparation for new learning. Building learning readiness necessitates
The following steps:

1. Analyze the skills, understanding and knowledge required in studying a given material.

2. Use diagnostic pre-tests and other devices to determine the level each prospective learner possesses the requisite skills, understanding
And knowledge as well as the specific areas of strengths and weaknesses

3. Design the instructional programmed to match the individual needs and abilities of each learner

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING

This theory was propounded by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936). He was primarily interested in the circulation of the blood and the
Processes of the gastrointestinal system. He showed little interest in psychology until his later years. For him, the so called "mental events" were no more
Than reflex units of behavior. The study of the nervous systems of animals led him to methods of investigation from which he discovered the techniques of the Condi-
Toning of behavior.

Classical conditioning can be defined as learning resulting from the pairing any artificial stimulus over a number of trials until the artificial stimulus begins to
Produce responses similar to the response, which follows the natural stimulus. Classical conditioning depends on the association of a response an individual makes
Automatically (unconditioned responses) with a previously neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus). This association is accomplished through pairing the conditioned stimulus
With an unconditioned stimulus that automatically elicits the unconditioned response. After enough pairings, the individual will make the conditioned response when the
When the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. Classical conditioning is also called respondent conditioning because the individual does not respond until after the stimulus
Has been presented ( Gibson, 1980).
Pavlov discovered the technique of conditioning by accident as he was experimenting with dogs to learn about their digestive and salivary functions (Silverman, 1978). He wanted
To determine the connection between the presences of food in a dog's mouth and the dogs salivary flow. Pavlov inverted the parotid gland of the dog so that its secretions could be accumulated
In a calibrated glass and measured externally. The dog was placed in a harness. Initially the dog salivated at the sight of food. Pavlov discovered that the dog salivated not only at the sight of food
But at also when it heard the sound of a bell before it received food. After some trials, the sound of the bell alone elicited the salivating response. Thus, the dog had learnt that sound of the bell
Would soon lead to it being given something to eat.

Variables in Classical Conditioning Experiment

1. Conditioned stimulus (CS). This is neutral stimulus, which evokes a particular response after conditioning. In Pavlov's experiment, the CS (bell) originally did not produce salivation.

2. Unconditioned Stimulus (US). The unconditioned stimulus (US) on presentation produces a reflexive unconditioned response (UR). In Pavlov's experiment, food (US) evokes salivation
(UR) in dogs

3. Unconditioned Response (UR). Before conditioning, the dogs salivate when food (US) is presented.

4. Conditioned Response (CR). Salivation became a conditioned response when it has been associated to a neutral stimulus (CS) that did not originally elicit it. According to Pavlov, if the conditioned
Stimulus and unconditioned stimulus (CS + US) were presented repeatedly, the connection between the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response is strengthened. The more the CS - US pairings,
The stronger.

Pavlov and Learning Process
Pavlov believes that humans learn as a result of conditioning. Learning is an association of paired stimuli and response. Association is therefore very vital to learning. Learning has taken place when a person
Is conditioned to associate a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus. Learning occurs when the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus occur together in time, and a response is made

Concepts in Pavlov's Theory

Extinction. The process by which an established conditioned response is weakened. Extinction occurs when the CS is presented frequently without being paired with the US.

Spontaneous Recovery. The reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a period of time during which the conditioned stimuli has been absent. Usually, however, responses that returns through
Spontaneous recovery is weaker than they were initially and can be extinguished more readily.

Stimulus generalization. This takes place when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus. The greater the similarity between two stimuli, the greater likelihood
Of stimulus generalization. Once a US is learned, a CS that is similar to the original CS will also elicit the CR. For example, Pavlov found that a dog that was conditioned to salivate at the tone of tuning fork would
Also response to ringing of a bell, buzzing bees, etc

Stimulus Discrimination. This is the process by which an organism learns to differentiate among stimuli, and restricts its response to one particular stimulus. The ability to make discrimination is the essential factor in human
Learning.

Pavlov and the Teacher

1. Learning tasks should be presented in a form that is interesting or pleasant to the learner and meet his interests.

2. The teacher should try to start from known to unknown, that is, establish an association between what the learner already knows and the new topic to be taught for meaningful learning to take place.

3. The feelings anxiety associated with failure in school may create an aversion to problem solving situations outside of school. The principles of classical conditioning can be used to develop favorable and unfavorable attitudes towards
Learning.

THORNDIKE'S LAWS OF LEARNING

The basis of Edward Thorndike's approach to problems of behavior lay in his belief that human behavior could be analyzed and studied in terms of S-R units. The essence of behavior was to be found in the initiation of an even and an individual's reaction
To them. As a behaviorist, Thorndike views learning in terms of establishing connection or bond between stimulus and responses. Humans only differ from other animal their greater capacity to make associations.

EDWARD THORNDIKE'S EXPERIMENTS

Thorndike investigated learning in animals by using cats. A hungry cat was confined in a puzzle box with food visible on the outside. He presented it a problem, which required the cat to manipulate some devices, which would open the gate of the puzzle box.
Bits of food were placed outside the box as an incentive for the cat to open the gate. From such experiments, Thorndike made the following observations.

The cat first behaved aimlessly as if doing things by trial and error.
It then responded correctly by accident (chance success) and finally, repeated the successful operation
Consuming the food (satisfier) rewarded it.
Getting the reward strengthens the connection between the stimuli and the response made just before the reward (satisfier) was given.

From the above observations. Thorndike formulated three major laws, namely: law of effect, law of readiness and law of exercise

LAW OF EFFECT

The law of effect states that the association between a stimulus and a response will strengthen or weakened depending on whether a satisfier or an annoyer follows the response (Gibson, 1980). An act, which is followed by satisfaction in a given situation, will generally
Become associated with that situation; so that when it recurs the act will also be likely to recur (Curzon, 1981). On the other, an act, which results in discomfort, tends to be disassociated from the situation, so that when the situation recurs, the act will be less likely to recur.
The greater the satisfaction or discomfort experienced, the greater the degree to which the S-R bond will be strengthened or loosened.
After research studies have showed that this explanation was inadequate, Thorndike propounded another law, the truncated law of effect. This law added the idea that while satisfiers always strengthens the bond between a stimulus and a response, the effect of annoyers
Is much less predictable; sometime they weaken the bond, but sometimes they do not.

LAW OF EXERCISE

The law of exercise states that response to a situation may be strongly connected with the situation depending on the number of times it has been so connected and to the average strength and duration of the connection. The exercise here refers to practice. Practice they say makes
Perfect. In a later revision of the law, Thorndike asserts that practice in itself did not make perfect, but practice in circumstances that allowed the learner to be informed or given comments about his progress could be valuable in strengthening the S-R links

LAW OF READINESS

The law of readiness states that a learner's satisfaction determined by the extent of his preparatory set, that is, his readiness for action. This law was summarized into two:

When someone is ready to perform an act to do so is satisfying.

When someone is ready to perform some act, not do so is annoying. An interference with goal-directed behavior causes frustration and making someone to do something he does not want to do is frustrating

SUBSIDIARY LAWS

Thorndike also outlines other subsidiary law (Curzon, 1981). They include the following:

Law of Multiple Responses. A response, which fails to produce satisfaction, will trigger off another until success results and learning becomes possible

Law of Set. The individual's total attitude or disposition affects learning.

Law of Response Analogy. A Person's response to a novel situation is determined by innate tendencies to respond and by elements in similar situations to which he has acquired responses in the past.

Law of Selectivity of Response. As an animal learns, it becomes capable of ignoring some aspects of a problem and responding to others.

Law of Associative Shifting. A learner first responds to a given stimulus, then transfers the responses, but association, to another stimulus.

Law of Spread Effect. If an act had pleasurable consequences, the pleasure tended top become associated with not only the act and the eliciting stimulus, but also with other actions, which occurred approximately, the same point in time.

IMPLICATION OF THORNDIKE'S THEORY TO THE CLASSROOM

Reward is important in learning. It strengthens the occurrence of behavior a follows.

Practice and repetition is vital in the learning process. However, practice efforts should accompanied by feedback

The law of readiness stresses the importance of preparation for learning. The teacher must wait until learner is ready to learn and should give those experiences which help to enhance readiness. Preparatory experience that will hasten the development
Of readiness can be provided in elementary classes.

OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING

B.F. Skinner propounded the operant conditioning theory of learning. Operant conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its positive or negative consequences (Feldman, 1996). The procedure is based
On the principle of reinforcement whereby the consequences of a response determine whether that response will persist. The law of operant conditioning states that if the occurrence of an operant is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus, the strength/
Probability is increased. An operant is a set of acts, which constitutes an organism's voluntary behavior. Examples of operant acts include an animal raising it head, pressing a lever, lifting of leg, etc, and the approach is operant conditioning because an organism operates
On the environment in order to cause certain consequences. It is also called instrumental conditioning because certain responses or instruments are essential in leading or reward.
Skinner classified behavior into respondent and operant. The respondent behavior is the summation of those responses, which can be identified with specific eliciting stimuli. The operant refers to that behavior which is consistently elicited by particular stimuli.
Rather the organism operates or acts on the environment to generate specific consequences. In operant conditioning, the important stimulus is that which immediately follow the response

B . F. Skinner used an apparatus, the Skinner box, to demonstrate operant conditioning in animals. A hungry ( unconditioned) rat is allowed explored the box, when the rate spontaneously presses a small lever, the experimenter drops a pellet of food from an aperture
Into a try for the animal to eat. Repeatedly the animally acquires the habit of pressing the lever presentation of food.

SKINNER AND LEARNING PROCESS

Learning according to Skinner is the creation of conditioned connection between the learner's operant behavior and its reinforcement. An organism learns by production changes in it environment. The changes are followed by a particular consequence. The consequence
(Pleasant or unpleasant) determines whether that operant behavior will be repeated. The strength of a learned response is generally determined by the amount of reinforcement that it receives

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT

The basic principle of operant conditioning is that response that are reinforce are more likely to be repeated that those that are not reinforced. All behaviors are accompanied by certain consequences, and these consequences strongly influence whether or not these behaviors
Are repeated and at what level of intensity. The consequences follow behavior is either positive or negative. When consequences strengthened a preceding behavior, the term reinforcement is used. There are positive and negative forms of reinforcement. When the consequences
Weaken a preceding behavior, the terms punishment and extinction is used.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

This is the termination or withdrawal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforce) contingent upon the performance of a desired behavior. A negative reinforce is a stimulus which, when taken away from a situation, increases the probability of a response occurring. The negative reinforce refers
To those things the organism dislikes such as electric shock, pinching, scolding, nagging, etc. The effect of negative reinforces depends on their termination (Silverman, 1978)

The Cessation of negative reinforces increases the frequency of a response that leads to escape from the negative reinforces. Negative reinforces are effective only when there is a change to escape them. That chance according to Gibson (1980) is obvious to the individual. For example,
When a bell is sounded, a shock is applied to a dog's leg. The dog can stop the shock by lifting its leg. With time, the dog learns to quickly lift its leg whenever the bell sounds. The dog is negatively reinforced if it lifts its leg in order to cancel the electric shock.

PUNISHMENT

To punish is to present unpleasant or painful stimuli in order to decrease the probability that a preceding behavior will occur. Punishment is a consequence that decreases the future occurrence of the behavior that produces it. Punishment can be administered in two forms (Smith, Sarandon, and Sara son, 1986).
The first, aversive punishment, is carried out by applying aversive (unpleasant) stimuli, such as painful slaps , shaming, scolding, verbal reprimands, etc. The second is done by taking awaking positive reinforces, such as privileges, social interactions, or possessions. This Second form of punishment is known as
Response cost.

Punishment and negative reinforcement both involve the use of aversive stimuli. While negative reinforcement requires the termination aversive stimuli, punishment is a presentation of aversive stimuli. Negative reinforcement strengthens a response while punishment weakens or suppresses it.

GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS IS TRANSITION FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOOD

The period of adolescence is termed "the Crisis period" with its attendant stress and conflicts which are exhibited in different forms of worries and concern. Some of these concerns according to Havighurst (1972) are as listed below.

Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexes

Achieving masculine and feminine social roles

Accepting one physique and using the body effectively

Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults

Achieving assurance of economic independence

Selecting and preparation for an occupation

Preparing for marriage and family life

Development skills and concepts necessary for epic competence

Desiring and achieving social responsible behavior

Acquiring a set of values and ethical system as a guide to behavior i.e. development an ideology. Apart from the above enumerated concerns there are some basic and fundamental problems that confront adolescent which include

IDENTITY FORMATION: This is the first crucial concern of Adolescents. The search for self is unending and at the same time frustrating. The self is the sum total of a person's idea and attitude about whom and what he is. His problem is compounded
When sometimes he behaves like adult and he is accepted and at mother time he is told that he is not matured for such yet.

EFFECT OF PEER ON ADOLESCENCE

Adolescent have lesser dependent on parents but draws comfort from members of his age group and they provide support and security for him The influence of peers may be negative or positive especially when the needs of adolescents are not met. Teachers and parents
Are advised to watch the peer group which the children belong to. Efforts should be made to disband peer where there are bad elements.

ABNORMAL USE OF ALCOHOL AND DRUGS

This is a behavior some adolescents learn from their peers or influence by significant others. Once this habit starts it becomes difficult to stop and it may lead to drop addiction and it s attendant problem like mental disorder may follow.