Toddler Development

In comparison to the age of the universe, the human life-span is said to begin-and-end with a blink of an eye; and yet, for parents, raising a child through the years of toddler-hood, no matter how fulfilling; can at times, seem eternal. Consequently, it is understandable that parents wonder what transpires inside the little toddler mind and body during these exciting and trying times. Additionally, most parents want guidelines that can, at any time, give an idea of their child's stage of development. Fortunately, many parents can rest-assured that toddlers, just like the rest of us, are doing what comes naturally at their unique level of physical and emotional maturity. Each child acquires skills at different rates of acquisition, although within the common order for developmental progress. For example, all humans (whether disabled, normal, or a high-achiever) develop in an order that remain the same throughout the human life span. Although the steps of development remain sequential, progress can be slower for some, normal for most, and excelled for others (University of Illinois Board of Trustees, 2011). Clearly, when discussing a toddler's development, there are specific areas of importance, beginning with cognitive acquisition. Interestingly, there are several theories that focus on cognitive development, and by combining the hypothesis of several, one can come to a rational understanding of how children develop as they progress through the toddler years. For example, Piaget's stages of cognitive development places the toddler in sensorimotor stage through preoperational stage (Berk, 2008 p.20). According to Piaget, during this time of cognitive growth, schemes are developed through the toddler's experience. For example, as a child sees a ball drop, he creates a pattern of thought around the event. As he develops cognitively, the scheme becomes more complex, and eventually the image of a ball will evoke many different ideas about balls and their purpose. In Piaget's theory of cognitive development he labels further definition and exploration of the ball the '˜circular reaction method,' with sub-behaviors listed in age sequence as; reflexive schemes (0-4 months), primary circular reactions (1-4 months), secondary circular reactions (4-8 months), coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months), tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months), and mental representation (18-24 months) (Berk, 2008 pp.208, 209). Interestingly, although Piaget's ideas are valuable contributions for the basis of new research, the timelines are believed to be more defused, and also subject to the toddler's personal experiences, genetic makeup and culture. For instance, as Laura Beck confirms on page 220 of her work, Infants, Toddler, & Adolescents, "Information-processing researchers agree with Piaget's idea that children are active, inquiring beings. . .and these professionals focus on many aspects of thinking, from attention, memory, and categorization skills to complex problem solving" (Berk 2008). Additionally, Vygotsky's social-cultural theory is valuable when considering the effects of culture and family influence on cognitive development. Clearly, the role and input of culture and family on cognitive development of a toddler differ according to the needs and beliefs of the culture in which the child is raised (Berk, 2008 p.227). Several factors can enhance or impede the progress of cognitive development. Also, negative environmental influences have an effect on the brain's functionality. For example, when teratogens (environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period), interfere with prenatal development, a preterm and low-birth-weight infant can result. Consequently, these infants can have several side effects like, but not limited to, inattentive or overactive babies during the toddler years and beyond (Berk, 2008 pp. 105,140-141). On the other hand, the Interactionist view, parents can improve the child's social environment and use techniques designed to enhance and encourage cognitive growth. For example, a parent can scaffold with a toddler to assist him/her with language acquisition by finding the toddler's zone of proximal development and helping him/her to acquire language skills just beyond his/her comfort zone (Berk, 2008 p.227).Another aspect of toddler development is language acquisition. Because language is considered a natural mechanism of the brain from conception, toddler development is greatly affected by language acquisition. It is believed that toddlers can learn any language fluently without an accent, and actually begin learning language patterns in the womb. Case in point, on page 194 of Laura Beck's text titled, Infants, Children, and Adolescents, she takes into account ". . . the natural ability of a child to extract regularities from complex, continuous speak. Accordingly, they use this information to talk when they are about 12 months old" (Berk 2008). There are three theories of language development that provide some insight into the importance of language and cognitive development. One such theory began with B.F. Skinner's (1957) behaviorist perspective which proposed that language is acquired through operant conditioning. In other words, as the parent's interact with an infant and respond to the infants sounds, language acquisition develops. Some behaviorists believe that imitation enables children to build language knowledge (Berk, 2008 p.237). A second theory, the Nativist perspective, developed by linguist Noam Chomsky (1957), proposed that the brain houses a language acquisition device (LAD) that contains universal grammar, or sets of rules common to all languages (Berk, 2008). The third, according to Beck on page 239 of our text, "the Interactionist perspective professes interactions between inner capacities and environmental influences" combine to assist in language acquisition (2008 Berk). Case in point, there are happenstances that can affect language acquisition negatively and/or positively. For example, when considering the prenatal chart on page 105 of our text, it is clear that prenatal care during embryonic period from about six weeks through the fetal period, can affect many aspects of development, and will directly influences the ability to speak and language development during the toddler period. Interesting findings about feral children's inability to acquire language also point to a reference by Berk on page 238 of , in which she highlights the importance of obtaining language during the brain's sensitive period (2004 Ward). On the other hand, speaking to and playing music for the fetus as well as the infant is believed to enhance language acquisition (Berk, 2008 pp. 100,102,103). One more important aspect of child development is the child's ability to eventually manage and deal with emotions. Therefore, it is through the positive development of these skills that the child acquires the ability to make positive social interactions. Case in point, as a child matures and acquires language skills, he/she will have the ability to share feelings instead of just reacting to life events. Accordingly, when a child that has not yet developed emotionally he/she will cry when unhappy; but, once the same child has progressed in the area of emotional understanding, he/she will express feeling through words and gestures. Consequently, when looking at most theories on toddler growth, emotional development depends on the support and positive reinforcement of key people in a child's life; as well as, cultural and genetic factors (MentalHelp.Net, 1995-2011). Obviously, even when taking temperament and genetics into account, it is through the adults in a child's life, and the social experiences that transpire through those individuals, that understanding of emotions and the skill in how to manage the expression of emotions is realized (Oswalt, 2008). Emotional growth is another important area of toddler development, which is believed to be effected by genetics, life experiences, and prenatal care and teratogens present during pregnancy. Some dangerous influences are tobacco, alcohol, drugs, disease, and lead (Berk, 2008 pp.105-114). Clearly, the effects of teratogens do not stop once the baby is born; as, environmental influences during infancy play an important role in toddler development. For example, human development is hampered unimaginably when a child is reared by an animal. In most historical accounts, these children were never able to acquire language, which confirms the theory that language acquisition is best acquired during the '˜sensitive period' of brain development (Berk, 2008 p.238). Additionally, their cognitive skills were not developed and could not be fully acquired. Some of these children remained wild, and never adjusted to human interaction. In some cases children developed abnormal physical attributes as is described in historical accounts depicted by A. Ward (2004) in the article named, '˜Mystery of feral children' on a science mystery cite (Ward, 2004). Moving forward, another interesting and important aspect of toddler development is motor skills. According to developmental theories, motor skills are acquired in stages. In fact, when a baby begins to walk, or more precisely, when they take their first step, they are considered toddlers (University of Illinois Board of Trustees, 2011). Additionally, through scaffolding techniques care givers can assist toddlers as they progress. For example, parents can purchase equipment such as walkers and or baby bouncers that are designed to strengthen the baby's leg muscles and help them with coordination. Regardless of how parents choose to assist their infants, there are several landmarks in toddler development that a parent can expect. For example, around 12 months, a toddler may walk alone, and around18 months, a toddler makes phenomenal gains in motor skills; and, will begin to stack blocks, remove clothing, and feed him/herself (Colson MD E. R., & Dworkin MD P. H, 1997). Even with these extraordinary achievements in a toddler's life, bowel and bladder control is delayed until around 24 months, when physiological development, the child's ability to understand the meaning of the physical cues, and motor control of these muscles is acquired (Berk, 2008, p.193). During week three through week six, then at week eight of the embryonic stages; and again, during the entire fetal period the fetus is susceptible to a number of teratogens that can effect later development of a toddler's motor skills (Berk 2008 p.105). For example, during pregnancy, motor development can be slowed and/or impaired by the mother's use of alcohol and drugs. Additionally, although these findings are yet to be confirmed, it is believed that the mother's use of regular aspirin can affect the motor skills in toddlers (Berk, 2008 p.108). All the while, culture and their tradition's affects on toddler development are also evident. According to Greenfield (1992), cultural variations are strongly evident in motor development. For example, Japanese mothers do not take special effort to encourage motor development, and some cultures actively discourage rapid motor progress until the baby is capable of reasoning skills do to safety (cited from Berk, 2008 p.190). In contrast, other cultures deliberately teach these skills to their babies, and they walk considerably earlier than other cultures (Berk, 2008, p.190).Moving forward, according to Bronfenbrenner's biological model, social development is attained through the child's biological disposition and the environmental forces (2008 Berk p. 25-27). Accordingly, Berk depicts the different systems theorized by Bronfenbrenner's model of the ecological systems theory. For example, the Microsystem is named the closest environment to the child in which he/she interacts and conducts activity. Within the Microsystem or individuals closest to the child that effect the child's development in every way. According to Hetherington & Stanley-Hagen (2002), Third parties that support the roles of direct care-takers enhance effective parenting and assist in the child's positive social adjustment. On the other hand, marital conflict can slow or negate the child's ability to adjust normally (cited by Berk, 2008). The Mesostystem is the connection between the child's home, school, neighborhood and day-care center. The stronger the positive links between home and these areas of life, the more affective the child's social skill development will become. Clearly, socialization continues to develop as the toddler experiences his or her world and through community in which a child lives, as is pointed out in the Ecological system theory presented by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1995-2011, MentalHelp.Net). Additionally, the support that these entities provide to the family such as social networks, healthcare and child services can have a huge impact on the child's life events and therefore social development. And last, the Macrosystem is the outermost level of the model. For example, the country in which the child lives will affect the standards of childcare, social services, and the work place in which the parents earn a living. Additionally, culture and community enhance or conflict with a child's understands of positive social perceptions (Berk, 2008 pp. 26-28).In regards to morality and the development of toddlers, and according to the theories developed around human morality, there are conflicting views. For example, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a French philosopher introduced the idea that children are naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth (Berk 2008, p.12). All the while, the Evolutional Developmental psychologist point out the impact of environmental and social influences on a child's moral concepts (2008 Berk p.24). For example, Vygotsky's (1934, 1987) social interaction theory, points out that children develop ways of behaving and thinking by interacting with more knowledgeable influences within their society. Although Vygotsky believed that children are active, constructive beings as Piaget claimed, Vygotsky believed in a socially mediated process (Berk, 2008 pp. 24, 25).Many aspects of personal, family, social, community, and world knowledge and experiences contribute to a toddler's developing moral character. For example, parents and/or family members teaches the baby the family's traditional way to communicate, eat, and interact within the family unit. Also, religion and family values are important aspects of morality for the growing child. These aspects of community are segregated by Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological system into 3 classifications referred to as the micro, mesa, and macro influences (1995-2011, Mentalhealth.net). On another matter of morality, Berk (2008) states that, "the foundations of self-concept begin as early as age 2, when parents impart rules, standards for behavior, and evaluative information about the child" (Berk, 2008, p.367).Lastly, the appearance of a toddler is a concern. Clearly, it is natural that a toddler becomes leaner and more muscular as time passes. Interestingly, between the ages of 2-2 ½ years, the toddler has grown to ½ his adult height. As one can imagine, growth during toddlerhood is attained in spurts, and it is not surprising to find a toddler's appetite affected accordingly. During toddler years, the posture becomes more erect, the abdomen protrudes, and the legs tend to bow until about 3 years of age when this temporary condition corrects itself (1997, Colson MD, & Dworkin MD). Additionally, during birth, many happenstances can affect a newborn's coloring, head shape, and overall appearance; additionally, some after affects of childbirth can carry through to the toddler years. Case in point, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) can cause abnormalities in facial structure, size of the head, along with other serious problems that can carry into adult life (2008, Berk).Clearly, in comparison to the age of the universe, the human life-span begins-and-ends with a blink of an eye; and yet, for parents and teachers, raising and educating a child through the years of toddler-hood, no matter how fulfilling; can at times, seem eternal. Fortunately, most parents can rest-assured that toddlers; just like the rest of us, are doing what comes naturally at their unique level of physical and emotional maturity. As parents, educators, and mentors, it is important that we make every effort to assist and protect each child, ensuring that they are able to acquire the skills necessary to become and to do all that they dream of becoming, and are capable of being.