Tudor and Stuart as Sonnet Subjects

During the Renaissance period, love is oft times the subject of courtly sonnets. Giacomo da Lentini invented the sonnet form, with early sonnets popularized by one of da Lentini's students, Petrarch in the early 14^th century. They were a way poets could convey their inner dialogue about the romantic love. Petrarch developed the Italian sonnet form of a quatrain and a sestet, and attempted to establish the love poem. A contemporary of Dante, Petrarch fought to distance himself from Dante within his work, Rime Sparse.

Within the sonnets, Petrarch uses Laura in the Rime sparse to represent the earthly sensual pleasures that mortals encounter. However in death, she ascends into a higher plane of spiritual sense, and is the key to the poet's salvation, as he realizes that the love he felt was not only one of physical passion, but emotion: a traditional love. "In the Secretum, Augustinus repeats the analysis of this 'epidemic of phantasms' that distract the soul from the clarifying meditation necessary to its ascent toward God. This doctrine gives a moral coloration to Petrarch's adaptation of the traditional love psychology that explained love as an obsession with the image of the beloved: the obsession is an extreme manifestation of that activity known to Augustine and other patristic writers as delectation cogitationis, the pleasurable meditation on the image of an object of desire" (Strum-Maddox 105). As Europe moved into the Renaissance period, traditional love evolved into chivalrous and courtly love; as well as political outlets for poets. Not only were sonnets used to promote the sexual mores of sixteenth century, they also spoke to the criticisms and politics abounding the European courts. Within this paper, I will explore the lives of 16^th century England through the eyes of the major political figures and do so through the form of literature they were most accustomed to, the sonnet.

While Henry fought with the Catholic Church to be granted the ability to divorce his first wife Catherine of Aragon, most of England was divided between Catholicism and Protestantism. "The future opponents of the kings could claim that Parliament had played an equal role in the Reformation and should have an equal voice in determining the role and structure of the church future. The seeds of conflict between crown and Parliament were being laid...The king's official title was modified in 1535 to incorporate the words 'Supreme Head of the Church of England,' which succeeded the earlier papal designation 'Defender of the Faith,' which Henry and his successor have retained" (Prall 30). Once Henry had himself designated as the official defender of the English faith, he was allowed to break from the Catholic Church, and break from Catherine. He then married Anne Boleyn, who gave him his second daughter, Elizabeth.

Elizabeth faced great obstacles throughout her life. With her legitimacy in question from her birth, she fought for her royal rights. This constant shift between religious beliefs continuously tore apart the countries of Europe, causing a greater rift between Elizabeth I and Mary, Queen of Scots, who still maintained that Catholicism was the right religion, despite her religious tolerance in Scotland. The tension made both women suspicious of each other. Mary, who was the rightful heir to the throne, eventually abdicated to her son, and attempted to seek refuge with her cousin. While Elizabeth was sympathetic towards her cousin, her death was inevitable. It was the only way Elizabeth could ensure her position on the English throne. "In the space of a single lifetime, England had gone officially from Roman Catholicism, to Catholicism under the supreme headship of the English king, to a guarded Protestantism, to a more radical Protestantism, to a renewed and aggressive Roman Catholicism, and finally to Protestantism again. Each of these shifts was accompanied by danger, persecution, and death" (Abrams 477). Yet, Elizabeth's childhood is as mysterious and shrouded as her adult years; wrought with scandal and gossip. As a teen, Elizabeth was sent to live with Thomas Seymour, who became her step-father of sorts. It is widely known that Seymour was enamored with Elizabeth, just falling short of sexually abusing the young woman. "When an indignant Kate Ashley went on to challenge Seymour for behavior that risked wrecking Elizabeth's reputation, his reply was as bold as brass. With an oath, he swore: 'I will tell my Lord Protector how I am slandered; and I will not leave off, for I mean no evil'" (Starkey 69). Through the entire time spent with Seymour and Catherine of Parr, Elizabeth maintained her innocence and did not break under the scandal.

Elizabeth fought her cousin Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, for the rights to the English throne. Elizabeth knew that Mary had a legitimate claim to the throne, and with Elizabeth's legitimacy constantly in question, she had more to lose.

Mary, raised in catholic France, married the dauphin, which secured the alliance between Scotland, France, and Spain. Phillip I understood that Elizabeth was vehemently against a marriage between England and Spain, and placed his faith into Mary, hoping her catholic faith would be able to receive the throne of England over her protestant cousin. With the constant threat of a Catholic takeover, Elizabeth imprisoned her cousin for almost two decades, before she finally signed her execution. Once Elizabeth had successfully established England as a Protestant state and most definitely not a monarch to be trifled with, she was able to enjoy the country that she loved. England had moved into its golden age, ripe with great movements in art and literature, politics and diplomacy.

While Mary, Queen of Scots was the one of the many heirs to the thrones of Europe, including England, France, and Ireland, she is most noted for her reign as Queen of Scotland. Less than a year old, she was crowned Queen of Scotland. Eventually she moved to France with her mother, where she was to marry the Dauphin. Two years later, both her mother and her husband died. Distraught, Mary returned to her beloved Scotland and ruled with grace and kindness. "The Scots received their new queen with great joy and celebration. At once, she began to try and help them; within a year of her arrival, one-sixth of all Church benefices were given to the Protestant ministers to relieve their poverty" (Hanson "Biography" par. 7). Mary believed in religious tolerance and harmony within the state of Scotland.

She was notably kind hearted, and wished nothing but peace for her country. Though she was of the Catholic faith, because of her mother's family, she continued the Catholic faith within Scotland. "She issued, and frequently repeated, a proclamation accepting religion as she had found it -- the first edict of toleration in Great Britain. A slow but steady amelioration of the lot of Catholics took place. At the end of her reign, there were no fewer than 12,600 Easter communions at Edinburgh" (Pollen par. 5). While Mary may have been Catholic, she still believed that there could be peace between both the Protestants and the Catholics within the country, much to the chagrin of Elizabeth I.

With both Henry VIII and then Elizabeth I fearing Catholic invasions, as long as Mary lived, there was hope for an invasion. The tension between the monarchs grew deeper, as Elizabeth attempted to block France from entering Scotland and assisting Mary in a successful overthrowing of the throne. While both women plotted against each other for control of the throne, it became abundantly clear the true nature of the battle; one that had began with Henry VIII when the Vatican refused to grant him a divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

Eventually, it was her faith which was her downfall. Refusing to convert and the heavy presence of Protestantism within Great Britain led Mary to be imprisoned by Elizabeth for the many attempts of plotting of the Faerie Queene's murder and tried for treason. "The great scandals of Mary's life were forgotten and she was mourned [by her supporters] as a Catholic martyr" (Hanson "Execution" par. 3). Mary died for her faith, being clothed in all red and a Eucharistic panel as she headed to her execution; a representation of her Catholic faith. Her death mirrors the many deaths that have occurred in the name of religion, much like the tensions that continue today in many countries between different cultures and beliefs.

Even as she sat at Fotheringhay awaiting for execution, Mary denied any such conspiracies against her cousin: "Soon after, Mary wrote a letter to the Duc de Guise outlining her plan this final act. She had always denied any implication in the treasonous plots that had sprung around her throughout her captivity" (Dunn 390). Once Elizabeth had successfully established England as a Protestant state and most definitely not a monarch to be trifled with, she was able to enjoy the country that she loved. England had moved into its golden age, ripe with great movements in art and literature, politics and diplomacy.

There can be no denying that the 16^th century offered bards a multitude of subjects in which to write. The women of the 16^th century are notably coy and seductive, as described in the sonnets of many Renaissance writers. However, it is the women who were in power in which the true nature of woman comes shining through. While Elizabeth and Mary spent much of their lives in a twisted sibling rivalry type of emotional and political state, they are nonetheless two monarchs who defined England from that point on. Neither of them was perfect or innocent, at least not completely, but they beautifully managed their thrones with grace, ruthlessness and cunning, envied by all who witnessed their rise to power.

Works Cited

Abrams, M.H. and Stephen Greenblatt, Eds. "The Reformation." The Norton Anthology of English Literature. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2000.

Dunn, Jane. Elizabeth and Mary: Cousins, Rivals and Queens.

Hanson, Marilee. "Biography: Mary, Queen of Scots." EnglishHistory.netApril 25, 2008). . 2004. (

--"1587, The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots" (April 25, 2008)

Pollen, John Hungerford. "Mary, Queen of Scots." The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IX.

Trans. Marie Jutras. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. (April 25, 2008)

Prall, Stuart E. Church and State in Tudor and Stuart England. Arlington Heights, Il.; Harlan Davidson, 1993.

Starkey, David. Elizabeth: The Struggle for the Throne. Great Britain; Chatto and Windos, 2000.

Sturm-Maddox, Sara. Petrarch's Metamorphoses: Text and Subtext in the Rime Sparse. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1985.