Understanding Racism and Prejudices, How We Form Prejudices

Diversity itself can be defined as referring to human qualities different from our own but qualities that are displayed in other individuals or groups. Essentially, diversity is what makes each of us unique and also what makes us believe that we fit or do not fit other groups. There are many areas in which diversity can be seen, and these are called dimensions of diversity according to Diverse Teams at Work by Gardenwarts and Rowe. These can include things like age, gender, sexual orientation, race/ethnicity, or physical ability. These are called internal dimensions of diversity. There are also external dimensions of diversity, which include appearance, family status, income, recreational habits, geographic locations, work experience, personal habits, religion, and educational background. There are also organizational dimensions of diversity, such as union affiliation, department, years of service, etc (corporate.ppg.com). All of these qualities make us unique from one another and the same as other members in our group. All of these qualities must be valued in the workplace and in life. Much effort has been exerted to discuss all the dimensions of diversity because typically human beings focus only on certain aspects, such as race or sexual orientation.

So, how do prejudices form? Certainly we have a fear of the unknown, and this fear often leads to categorization and stereotypes. Our prejudices are formed from stereotypes that we have acquired. Experts like Myron Rothbart, a psychologist at the University of Oregon, say "We all need to categorize in order to make our way through the world. And that is where the problem begins: We see the category and not the person" (Coleman). Categorization can certainly be helpful, however, categorization also boxes people in, does not allow them to break out of that categorization. Most experts agree that prejudice is learned in all sorts of ways. Basically, most experts believe that prejudice is learned just like anything else in the process of socialization. This means that prejudice can be learned by association. Many children learned to associate certain groups with good or bad qualities. For example, by watching a television show like cops, children might assume that African Americans or Native Americans are associated with crime or violence. The media absolutely sets up many of those associations. Another way that children learn prejudice is reinforcement. In other words, they come to realize that when they tell a racist joke, they get laughs, and so they continue to tell racist jokes. Children, of course, also model those around them as a source for prejudice. If family and friends express prejudice, it is certain that children will too. Many experts cite the importance of early childhood experience and the way that children process information. ''We distinguish between the familiar and the strange early in infancy,'' said Mortimer Ostow, a psychoanalyst and professor of pastoral psychiatry at the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York. ''Then in childhood, when we join groups, we learn to draw boundaries between us and them. By adolescence the group identity becomes even more important, and out-groups become the place to deposit our own faults.'' (Coleman).

Prejudice is ever-changing. According to Daniel Coleman's article 'Useful' Modes of Thinking Contribute to the Power of Prejudice, prejudice is much less overt than it has been in the past. However, subtle prejudice is not declining. "In today's world, an employer, for instance, may reject a black job applicant, ostensibly not because of his race but because the employer says he believes the person's education and experience are not quite right. Yet a white applicant with the same qualifications is hired" (Coleman). So, while we certainly understand that it is wrong to be prejudice in today's world, that doesn't mean that many people can overcome all those years and all those influences. As Thomas Pettigrew states in Coleman's article, "The emotions of prejudice are formed early in childhood, while the beliefs that are used to justify it come later,'' said Thomas Pettigrew, a psychologist at the University of California at Santa Cruz, a noted scholar in the field. ''Later in life you may want to change your prejudice, but it is far easier to change your intellectual beliefs than your deep feelings.'' (Coleman). It is very difficult to work against the process of socialization, even if we know differently. It is very hard to change old patterns of thinking. As an example, ''Many Southerners have confessed to me, for instance, that even though in their minds they no longer feel prejudice against blacks, they still feel squeamish when they shake hands with a black,'' Dr. Pettigrew added. ''The feelings are left over from what they learned in their families as children.'' (Coleman). The difficulty in controlling our physical or bodily reaction is shown in the above example. Intellectually, Southerners know it is wrong to feel prejudice, and intellectually, they try not to. However, that "gut reaction" says it all.

Other experts provide additional theories. Some experts like Dr. Susan Fiske of Princeton University say that emotions play a larger role than previously suspected. "For example, people rate groups such as homeless people, drug addicts and poor people low on both warmth and competence, prompting them to feel disgust. In contrast, they rate elderly people, along with the disabled and developmentally challenged, high on warmth but low on competence, prompting them to feel pity. People tend to rate middle-class people, whites and Americans high on both warmth and competence, prompting them to feel "pride," or what Fiske calls feelings of "ingroup" or "reference group" warmth and affiliation. And, finally, people tend to rate those who are rich, Jewish or Asian low on warmth and high on competence, prompting them to feel envy" (Chamberlain). In other words, she would say that it isn't so much about stereotypes per se but more about the feeling that certain characteristics conjure up.

Unfortunately, it takes a lot to unlearn our prejudices. And research by David Hamilton, a psychologist at the University of California at Santa Barbara, shows that people tend to seek and remember information that confirms their stereotypes. So, a black who sees whites as haughty and unfriendly may notice more and remember better the whites who have acted that way than those who were warm and friendly. And if, for example, white people avoid black people, there is little opportunity for receiving information that might upset their stereotypes (Coleman). If this is the case, how can we possibly overcome this problem?

And prejudice exists in many areas, not just racial prejudice. As a society, we tend to view older people as less than able. The appearance of phrases like "over the hill" and "old fuddy duddy" imply that older people are less valuable, less vital. The emphasis on youth in our culture and the fear of death make ageism all the more relevant. For example, job discrimination is a huge factor even though "employers who attract and retain older workers today will be in a much better competitive position as the boomers begin to retire," he says, "than employers who wait until tomorrow." (Age Discrimination) People of a certain age are much less likely to be given quality health care according to studies done. "The attitudes of physicians and other health providers, as well as health care institutions, offer instances of frank ageism or subtle discrimination based upon age. 60 percents of adults over 65 do not receive recommended preventive services, and 40 percent do not receive vaccines for flu and pneumonia" (Age Discrimination)

Gender prejudice is another area to be aware of. There are many areas in which surveys show attitudes have changed for the better, such as attitudes toward women in politics. However, other studies show low support still for women's rights by men. Women are seen as much more emotional and nurturing, which can work for or against them. Even today, most people have clear-cut ideas about "man's work" and "woman's work."

Sexual orientation can also be a basis for stereotyping and prejudice. This can be anywhere from threats to beatings. "Research indicates that 31 percent of gay youth were threatened or injured in school in just the last year" (Mental Health America). This is a statistic to be increasingly aware of, particularly for schools. Schools should not allow these practices to continue although it is so hard to catch the perpetrators, and rules about harassment may not be strong enough.

How can prejudice be reduced and we become aware of our prejudices? "Contact among people of different racial and ethnic backgrounds significantly reduces prejudice, according to Pettigrew, a research professor of psychology who recently completed an exhaustive review of more than 500 studies on the topic" (McNulty). Apparently, ninety four percent of all studies affirm this result meaning that affirmative action and/or school desegregation could be a policy that everyone benefits from in some way. As Pettigrew says, "Over and over again, we find that if we become familiar with something, we come to like it," said Pettigrew. "Familiarity itself leads to the liking." (McNulty). So, the key it seems is continual contact where people are on the same level playing field and people work together toward common goals.

The answers lie in many things. The first is simply recognizing where we are at in terms of prejudice and being cognizant of the choices we make and why we make them. We must seek out opportunities or be provided opportunities to form personal relationships with people unlike us. We must have daily contact and positive experiences with people who are unlike us, so that these stereotypes start to override the negative ones. Through open and honest discussion, we must develop empathy for one another. As a final example, in research done among college students about the TV show Will and Grace, the results showed that "the more viewers watched and enjoyed Will and supporting character Jack, the lower their level of prejudice" (Mattern). This has been called the Parasocial Contract Hypothesis, and proponents of this theory maintain that "positive experiences with minority characters can reduce prejudice in a manner similar to direct contact with people" (Mattern). This means that there is hope for everyone to overcome their prejudices with sustained contact and positive experiences. It isn't easy, but it can be done.

Works Cited

Age discrimination widespread in United States...International Longevity Center details realities of ageism in report. Retrieved January 19, 2008 at Web Site: http://www.todaysseniorsnetwork.com/ageism_Still_Exists.htm

Chamberlain, Jamie, What's behind prejudice? Retrieved January 19, 2008 at Web Site: http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct04/_prejudice._html

Coleman, Daniel, Useful Modes of Thinking Contribute to the Power of Prejudice. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFDF1230F931A25756C0A961948260

Diversity Dimensions from Diverse Teams at Work: Gardenwarts and Rowe. Retrieved January 20, 2008 at Web Site: http://corporate.ppg.com/PPG/Corporate/AboutUs/Diversity/AboutUs/WhatisDiversity/DiversityDimensions.htm

Dugan, Máire A.. "Prejudice." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: January 2004 http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/prejudice/>.

Mattern, Patty, U Research shows Will & Grace lessened prejudice toward gay men. University of Minnesota. http://www1.umn.edu/umnnews/Feature_Stories/Will_and_Grace_.html

McNulty, Jennifer, New Study Bolsters Case for Affirmative Action, http://currents.ucsc.edu/02-03/03-10/prejudice.html

What Does Gay Mean? http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/go/whatdoesgaymean