What Was that Child Thinking?? A Look at Cognitive Development

At some point in time, everyone has asked themselves, "What in the world was that child thinking?" Well, some people actually have gone as far as to attempt to figure out exactly what a child IS thinking. Cognitive development can be described as development of the mind; development in a part of the brain that is used for recognition, reason, knowledge, and understanding. Two well-noted, and influential, specialist in this area, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, have theories that have had a major impact on education and the early years of development in children.

One of the first of the major theorist, Jean Piaget (1886-1980), was a Swiss Biologist that began his work through the observation of his very own children and he concluded that the development of children occurs in a series of stages. These stages are reached in the same order, by every child, without bypassing any stage along the way, regardless of race, creed or culture. The only exception to this would be those children with special needs in regards to their physical and mental development. The progression and rate of the child's development is based on the speed in which the child matures; which is based on the biological development.

The continued absorption of information gained through life experiences are stored in mental files that we stored within our brain; these files, or skills, are named schemas by Piaget. (White, 2006) Schemas develop through a continuous learning process from each experience. Piaget also considered peer interaction to be a major influential factor in a child's cognitive development. The peer interaction leads to opportunities of conflicts, thus causing them to look at things from a different point of view, or decenter. He also believed that children interact better with other children because they feel like they are equals and are more open to new ideas. When children are with adults, children have no chance for equalized conflicts; therefore this interaction leaves no room for any cognitive growth.

Another well-known theorist in the field of cognitive development is Lev Vygotsky (1896- 1934) from Russia. Vygotsky was not educated into his claim to fame, originally he went to the school for law and later while working as a school teacher wrote a series of papers on various subjects, including developmental psychology, child development and education. Throughout his experiences in education, Vygotsky proposed that social interaction has a large influence on the cognitive development of children. (White, 2006) Through his observations, he surmised that higher mental abilities formed with continuous social interactions with the primary people in that child's life.

That would usually be the parent's of the child and other important adults that have regular and continuous contact with the child. These social interactions yield the knowledge and habits of the culture, speech, written language and other symbols from which the child derives his or her real knowledge. Vygotsky hailed this gained knowledge as internalization. His theory is highly based upon the belief that a child's biological, social and cultural growth do not occur in seclusion. He also stated that a less experienced learner can accomplish more in the light of a more experienced one; that multiage or multi-experienced interactions between children open the doors of opportunities for all levels of cognitive development in children.

Both Piaget and Vygotsky, had many opposing theories, but they did appear to believe in a few of the same things; which the active and ongoing process of development as only the beginning. They both believed that the development of a child is an ongoing and active process. Before they concluded that development comes before learning, they concluded that development and learning are reliant upon one another for complete growth to be sustained in a child. For instance, Piaget and Vygotsky also felt that learning is considered to be subsequent to cognitive development in the development process. The emphasis on the social interaction of children with others is important to the growth of children; whether this interaction is with their peers or influential adults. Other than being constructivists and believing that teaching and learning in children is based on the building blocks of "mental construction" that is where their similarities end.

Intelligence

Piaget and Vygotsky had their theories on the placement of intelligence within the processes of cognitive development. They both believed that intelligence is gained through experiences. The more information that a child is submitted to, the more information the child absorbs and from there, retains. Believing that interaction is the key to the intellectual development, both Piaget and Vygotsky agreed with one another. The social and societal influences are the boundaries in which cognitive growth are established, thus are considered to be the primary and pivotal similarity of the two.

Yet, when one delves into the details of each man's theory, we can find significant, and obvious, differences in their theories of intelligence. Piaget believed that intelligence comes from action. A child's learning takes place through their constant interaction with their just their surroundings, but that learning only takes place after development whereas Vygotsky believed that learning has to begin before the development can occur and that learning happens because of a child's interaction with their community and surroundings. Basically, Piaget believed that children did not feel that interaction with others, adults or peers, was importance to the growth of a child where Vygotsky believed that the interaction of children with adults and peers was vital to their growth. Another aspect of their differences is that Piaget's study of intelligence included his theory of "genetic epistemology;" or the study of how knowledge is acquired and developed.

(Thomas, 2006) He used a probing style of questioning to discover what a child did or did not understand and he was primarily focused on what the child did
NOT understand and their mistakes rather than on the concepts that they understood and retained. Piaget then focused his work toward logically explaining the children's errors and finding an organized pattern in how the child derived the errors. Piaget concluded that intelligence begins at birth from continuous repetition of activities and with the belief that development is the result of independent learning. Whereas Vygotsky, concluded social interaction is important in the cognitive development of children since he believed that it is a major influence in language and thought.

His research focused on social and cultural factors that he considered to be vital to the growth of intelligence. Vygotsky truly believed that social interaction, whether with children and their peers or between children and adults, is the key to their development to thought and language. (Thomas, 2006) He believed that humans have the natural ability to alter their environment and because of this, humans are able to not only acquire new habits, but create them as well. Our use of tools and symbols allow us to create new cultures and societies and since cultures and societies are vital to development, Vygotsky's theory seems to come full circle.

Stages

Each of the theorists, Piaget and Vygotsky, developed a stage related developmental theory based on a child's cognitive development. Each theorist believed that there were some problems in a child's range of understanding. Through this realization both Piaget and Vygotsky admitted that learning and understanding is an active and ongoing process and the pinnacle achievement of this understanding is a stair step process to success.

In Piaget's argument, he stated that cognitive growth in a child happens through a variety of stages, aptly called "Stages in Development." (HSC, 2006) Piaget's "Stages in Development" explores the changes that occur in a child's thinking abilities over time. Piaget developed four "Stages in Development" known as the sensorimotor (ages 0-2), pre-operational (ages 2-7), concrete-operational (ages 7-12) and formal-operational (ages 12-adult). These stages are developed in a straight-forward manner in that has its own characteristics, but yet still, its own limitations.

The sensorimotor stage between the ages of 0 and 2 years old is when the child begins to learn about their world through their senses and movement Things that seem small to adults, like permanence (existence of objects outside the field of vision) and that one action causes another (hitting a ball will make it move) can give the child a goal-directed initiative. The pre-operational stage of development between the ages of 2 and 7 years old concludes that mental operations have not fully developed in the child. Basically, Piaget is stating that a child does not have the full ability to think through actions and they still believe that the amount of things remain the same even though the appearance may change.

Whereas, Piaget believed that concrete-operations that occur between the ages of 7 and 12 years old, are the best years for a child to take on a n action discovery of learning. This stage is where a child realizes the ideas of three basic reasoning skills: identity, compensation and reversibility. A child is believed to be able to identify that things remain the same over time and that one action can cause another at this stage according to Piaget. They are also able to use logic to complete conversations (White, 2006). Piaget's final stage of cognitive development is the formal-operations stage beginning at the age of 12 and continuing through to adult. This stage, Piaget stated that not everyone reaches because not everyone has the ability to think abstractly. They can achieve skills like inductive and deductive reasoning, problem solving, complex thinking skills and deduction.

Vygotsky took the same approach to the stages of development as Piaget, but at the same time challenged Piaget's theories. Vygotsky believed that the stages of development were based upon learning through social interaction rather than the independence that Piaget focused upon. Vygotsky based his theories on the principles on concept development: that the child and the surrounding environment work together to shape cognitive growth and the surrounding adults provide support through language. Vygotsky used three themes to build his theories around; they are the importance of culture, the primary use of language and his own creation, the Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD.

Vygotsky claimed that culture is a creation of the tools and symbols that surround us everyday. As our culture grows, we grow, as we grow, we develop, thus becoming a strong and powerful influence over our culture. Then culture dictates what we need to learn and the skills that need to be developed from birth. Next in line is Vygotsky's theory of the central role of language. Language is considered to be possible because of the tools and symbols of culture. Social interactions within culture create the need to learn language, and through language socialization and thought are possible. Vygotsky sub-categorizes language into three categories, the first being external speech. External speech is usually between birth and 3 years old in which a child uses language in response to the outside world and to convey simple thoughts and feelings. Some of these thoughts and feelings are laughing, crying or even shouting.

The next sub-category is egocentric speech between the ages of 3 and 7 years old. At this stage, a child begins to "think out loud" and talk to themselves (Wikipedia, 2006). The last sub-category to Vygotsky's language theory is that of inner speech. During inner speech, which occurs about 7 years old, a child begins to have a silent inner speech in their minds that allows the child (or adult) control and maintain their behaviors and actions. Finally we reach Vygotsky's final theory that he designed, the Zone of Proximal Development, or ZPD, describes the area of functionality that a child can progress to without the support of other's. The ZPD is the determination of the child's actual level of development and their potential level of development. Through it all, Vygotsky felt that learning is an active and ongoing process that does not have to wait for a child to be ready for it, it is a force that is set into motion from the moment of birth.

Applications

The application of their theories are well known and well versed in education. Teachers and administrators are provided with important insight into the cognitive development of a child. Piaget and Vygotsky both came to the conclusion that a child is an active learner. Piaget and Vygotsky addressed that learning is relative and that social interaction is a factor, but once again, that is where the similarities end.

Piaget believed that children should discover learning with little to no teacher intervention. He believed that it is important to match the student's cognitive level of development with the task/assignment that is currently being presented, but to still allow for some un-equalization between the child and the assignment to allow for challenge and development. Manipulation of objects, both physically and mentally, is an important role in the construction of a child's cognitive development and understanding. Piaget leans towards this facilitation of development because he believes that a child's play is also a child's work. Piaget offers that a child should use plenty of collaborative activities where the child interacts primarily with peers.

This is because he believed that help from peers is more helpful because they are on an equal basis and that peers can challenge one another's thinking. Therefore, Piaget is suggesting that teacher's need to prepare lesson plans in such a way that the curriculum enhances the student's logical and conceptual growth. Those plans that include children to interact with the teacher more will allow the children that ability to be challenged rather than with their peers where they are more intellectually balanced and do not allow for the chance to increase their development beyond their current level.

Vygotsky's theories are applied into education in much the same manner in that Vygotsky suggests that teachers apply the scaffolding method (HSC, 2006). The scaffolding method suggests that the teacher works with the child to find a way to close the gap between the child's current level of learning and the child's potential level of learning. As the child becomes more adept to complete tasks and assignments alone that they previously could not do alone, the teacher can withdraw the assistance and instruction. There needs to be the understanding and mutual respect between the teacher and the child for the instruction to be effect and progressive.

Vygotsky's theories are also based on the idea that a child's culture, family environment and education is vital to the way that a child can develop and learn. In Vygotsky's methods, the teacher is extremely active in their students' learning process, not only through the use of the scaffolding method, but also by making sure that the students' have the correct tools and materials to encourage and facilitate learning. Another method that Vygotsky has contributed to education is the Zone of Proximal Development, or ZPD. The ZPD is the method that teachers can use to help the children understand a new idea or skill. Its purpose is designed to define the area of development in which a child is in currently and offer suggestions as to what areas could use additional support and/or have been exceeded.

Both Piaget and Vygotsky offered valuable insight and suggestions to the development and education of children. With strong contrasting, yet complimentary views, both theorists have made important and vital contributions to the world of education as it currently stands today. Where one theorist holds a weak view the other seems to hold a strength making them so important to one another. Where Piaget incorporated learning and growth through activity and play, Vygotsky incorporates the ability to socially interact with others as the foundation for cognitive development.

The primary conclusion is the same for both theorists; a teacher's focus is to provide the help and assistance to each and every student in such a manner that compliments the child's development. Where Piaget's theory may work for one child, it may not work for all students and the same goes for the theory from Vygotsky. With the diversity in today's classrooms, the methods of teaching must also embrace diversity in the curriculum. While there is no right or wrong theory, Piaget or Vygotsky have both developed something that is beneficial and useful in today's classroom environments.

REFERENCES:

Developmental Theories of Learning. (2006) Charles Stuart University, retrieved December 15, 2006, from

http://hsc.edu.au/pro_dev/teaching_online/how_we_learn/developmental.html

Jean Piaget. (2006, August 2). In Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. retrieved December 15, 2006, from

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&oldid=97831547

Lev Vygotsky. (2006, June 14). In Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. retrieved December 15, 2006, from

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lev_Vygotsky&oldid=100716031

Thomas, Dr. Michael, (2006) Cognitive and Language Development, retrieved December 15, 2006, from

http://www.psyc.bbk.ac.uk/people/academic/thomas_m/MRCPsych_thomas_cogdev_140305.pdf

White, Sharon, (2006, September 26), Two Theories of Cognitive Development, retrieved December, 15, 2006, from

http://ezinearticles.com/?Two-Theroies-Of-Cognitive-Development&id=310801