Women of the Dark Age: When Women Were Invisible

In the January, 1992 issue of Working Women magazine, Gail Collins, the journalist who wrote the endpiece enitled 'Outbox', commented on the fact that life would be a great deal more dismal for women if the New Year they were facing was the year 1000 A.D. Though her piece was humorous, there were some startling truths contained in it, and it is even true that, depending on where you were at the time, 1000 A.D. was worse for women than 1000 B.C. During this, the year 2000 of the calendar we use in the Christian world, women would do well to consider how and why this happened, in order to make certain we never again fall into a religious dark age.

There is considerable speculation as to when the Dark Ages began and ended in Europe; some historians place the beginning variously as when the Romans left England, acceptance of Christianity, or when Rome fell to the Goths. As for the end, it went out with a whimper rather than a bang, but many feel it was either when the Normans conquered England or the beginning of the Crusades -- still, life continued to be pretty miserable on into the Middle Ages, particularly for women. Part of this was due to the hold Christianity established both on the nobles and the peasants, and the general feeling that women were to blame for the misery of life (another Christian concept).

Whenever it started and ended, there were few choices for women to make their mark -- as Gail Collins noted, the primary ones were Christian martyr, chattel or queen. Still, there were some women who managed, even in those terrible times, to break out of the mold and achieve something beyond the ordinary. I have attempted to select the women for this article from those who were out of the ordinary, no matter where they stood in the social hierarchy. Of those profiled whose vocation was Christianity, I tried to find some who achieved something beyond the extreme restrictions of their religion and patriarchal society.

Helena (3rd century a.d.)

Mother of the Emperor Constantine, she was one of the first Christians to make a pilgrimage to Israel. Daughter of King Coel of Colchester, it was likely she was raised as a Christian, since there was a Christian church and bishop in Colchester at the time of her birth. A number of churches in England are dedicated to her, in particular the church of St. Helena at Bishopgate.

Helena was married to Chlorus for nineteen years, but he divorced her in 293 a.d. and married Theodora, the daughter of his patron, Maximian. It was then he was named Caesar and made ruler of Gaul, Spain and Britain. When Chlorus died and Constantine became Emperor, he recalled his mother to the court of Rome. When she was in her seventies, Helena superintended the building of a church on Mount Calvary. She found what she thought to be the tomb of Christ, but a temple to Venus had been erected on top of it. She had the temple destroyed and the tomb excavated.

Helena was sainted by the Christian church for supposedly discovering the cross on which Christ had been crucified. Her real contribution to history, however, lay in her talent for drawing people to her cause, building churches to her religion, and working for the poor. She wasn't terrific at the teaching of her son, however -- Constantine killed his eldest son Crispus and ordered his wife Fausta to be suffocated in a heated bath.

Marcella, Melania and Paula (4th century a.d.)

I have grouped these three Roman sisters together because they were all involved with St. Jerome, also known as Jerome the Humanist. Jerome was one of the early advocates of monasticism and the ascetic life. According to Gibbon, probably the greatest historian ever to write about Rome, "The profane title of 'Mother-in-Law of God' tempted this illustrious widow (Paula) to consecrate the virginity of her daughter Eustochium". OK, so these early Christian women were a little strange. Jerome, born in Rome but a natural wanderer, first turned up back in his home city in 382, on the invitation of Pope Damascus. Jerome and Marcella founded the first convent in Rome, using her palace on the Aventine. Jerome served as Secretary to the Pope, and like a lot of people who preach an ascetic life, his morals were somewhat loose. He became the lover of Paula, and possibly her daughter Blesilla also; it is definite that Jerome drove Blesilla to her death by the extreme religious penances he imposed on her (seems like that would earn him a conviction for psychological abuse, now).

Not surprisingly, Jerome was asked to leave Rome by the Bishop, none too politely, apparently, and Paula went with him. They went to Palestine and established a monastery and religious school which was co- educational. Jerome had charge of the boys, Paula of the girls; they attended church every day together. Strangely enough, though perhaps proof that the Christian church was not yet immured in its' dark age mentality, Jerome and Paula taught philosophy at their school, including the famous Greek and Roman pagans.

Falconia Proba (4th century)

Jerome seems to have held most women in contempt, except those who accepted his teachings and were willing to follow him. One of the women he wrote about in a satirical manner was Falconia Proba, one of the early romantic poets. It was popular during this time to adapt Biblical subjects to Greek and Roman literary forms; this was apparently an attempt to retain culture and learning within the strictures of the Christian teachings.

The form began in 330, during the reign of the Emperor Constantine. The first romantic poet was Juvencus, who published an epic poem of the first four gospels entitled 'Evangeliorum Libri IV'. The poem actually took the gospel of St. Matthew and interwove stories from the other three gospels -- the advantage of the epic form was that the writer was able to literally turn the characters of the bible into Olympian, larger-than-life heroes.

Only one of Falconia's poems remains extant today; the idea of a female poet was somewhat abhorrent to the culture and religious beliefs of dark age people, and during the chaos that resulted in Byzantium, her remaining work was lost. The existing poem is known as a 'cento', a poem produced by extracting parts from another writer's work and forming a new whole -- something like sampling in rap music today. Falconia was the first to use this form, which became very popular during the next century. Her story was of the temptation of Eve, taken from the work of Virgil.

Hypatia (4th and 5th century)

A noblewoman of Alexandria, Hypatia had the dubious honor of being a martyr to paganism. The 4th and 5th centuries a.d. were certainly the very heart of the Dark Ages, particularly in what had been the highly- civilized middle-east. The onset of Christianity wiped out most learning and intellectual pursuit (remember the burning of the libraries at Alexandria, which left only the one 'daughter' building, containing 'Christian' literature, standing?).

She was a philosopher, in the Classic Greek tradition, teacher and friend to Synesius, the philosopher who became a bishop in 410. Synesius served as the bishop of Ptolemais from 410 until 414. This was a time of terrorism on the part of the church and those who served her. Beginning in the 380's, religious violence was an every day occurance -- in 388 monks burnt a synagogue at Callinicum near the Euphrates. During

the same year they terrorized a series of temples in Syria. In 391 Theophilus, the Patriarch of Alexandria (patriarchs were religious leaders -- there were many, just as each city had its' own 'pope' during this chaotic period) called in a band of mercenary-monks to vandalize and destroy the Serapeum, a shrine to Serapis. Bands of religious thugs called 'Circumcellions' walked the streets armed, in search of pagans to beat and rob.

Hypatia fell victim to one of the mobs of mercenary-monks in 415, the year her friend Synesius left his bishopric. She was dragged from her house and lynched, for not being a Christian. Also, of course, for being an educated woman who could teach philosophy. Ignorance was the by-word of the times, particularly for women -- the more ignorant the better, because the easier to control.

Pulcheria (5th century)

During the middle years of the Dark Ages, most women of learning and power were centured around Byzantium, the Holy Roman Empire. Not that it was easy for them even there, but at least they still had the advantages of education and culture. Their fierce drive and determination is well demonstrated by Pulcheria, elder sister of the Emperor Theodosius II, who was not, by classical standards, particularly well-educated (which wouldn't have mattered, since few women were educated up to those standards anyway). Pulcheria, who was two years older than her brother, was proclaimed Augusta at the age of fifteen, and managed the affairs of the empire for thirty-six years -- the remainder of Theodosius' reign.

Pulcheria and her two sisters, Arcadia and Marina, were depressingly and overbearingly pious, and obsessed with the rebuilding of the cathedral of St. Sophia. The Byzantine court, which had been a place of culture and intellectual activity during the life of their mother, Eudoxia, became more like a cloister, filled with monks and priests, playing nothing but holy music. Theodosius ignored most of this, and the affairs of the country as well, until the age of nineteen. Then he decided to find a wife.

Actually, he asked Pulcharia to do this for him. She presented him with Athenais. Both she and her two sisters had decided to never marry and to remain virgins forever; a sort of lay-nuns. It was certainly necessary for the Emperor to wed, however -- to secure the succession.

Athenais/Eudocia (5th century)

Athenais was a young Greek woman, reputed to be of startling beauty. She arrived at the court to seek the aid of the Emperor against her two brothers. Daughter of a Greek professor (Leontius) at the university of Athens, her brothers had refused to share their father's estate with her after his death, refused her a dowry and cast her out. Pulcheria took her to Theodosius, who fell in love with her at first sight and determined to marry her.

Athenais was a pagan, but agreed to become a Christian in order to marry Theodosius. She was baptized into the faith and changed her name to Eudocia. She and Theodosius were married on June 7, 421. If Pulcheria had hoped to have no other star eclipse her at court, she chose the wrong wife for her brother. Athenais was classically educated, and brought a note of intelligence and learning to the dismal court of Pulcheria and her sisters. The year after marrying Theodosius she gave birth to a daughter. He named his wife Augusta as well as Pulcheria, which didn't sit well with his sister, who was beginning to realize the mistake she had made in introducing Athenais to Theodosius. Athenais became a force to be reckoned with in Byzantium, particularly in the areas of learning and intellectual pursuits. She had the university begun by Constantine enlarged and refined, and assisted Theodosius in the compilation of the Theodosian Codex. It was begun in 429, and took nine years to complete. In February of 438, it was adopted by both the Eastern and Western Emperors.

Through the intervention and machinations of Pulcheria, Athenais was accused of adultary (though never tried, and it wasn't proven) and left Byzantium to live in Jerusalem. She died there in 460, never reconciled with Theodosius, who lived the remainder of his life under the sway of Pulcheria.

Theodora (6th century)

By the time Justinian became Emperor of Byzantium, the way had already been prepared by his predecessors for a division between the Western and Eastern churches. As Western Europe fell more and more into decline, the East became the last bastian of civilization, however undermined by the insidious presence of Christian clerics and advisors. Justinian, as heir-apparent to the throne, married a (by one account) highly educated courtesan from a family that owned racing stables or (by another) the daughter of a bear-keeper in the amphitheatre who was a burlesque artist, or the historical equivalent thereof. Whatever her profession, Theodora would prove to be one of the most effective Empresses Byzantium ever knew.

Justinian succeeded to the throne in 527, and one of his first acts was to reorganize the confused Roman law. In 532 the Nika Riot caused half the city to go up in flames, but the uprising wasn't against Justinian, but his old, aristocratic ministers, who took no interest in the plight of the common man. Only Theodora was able to rouse her husband to confront the rebels, by telling him, 'The purple is a glorious winding-sheet'.

Justinian survived, and unfortunately decided it would be prudent to become a Christian fanatic. Thus he was able to direct his people's energies away from their own problems toward the supposedly ever-present threat of pagans in their midst. Theodora took more of an interest in the lives of women in Byzantium, and particularly in Constantinople. She founded hostels for reformed prostitutes and runaway girls, and schools for women. Though she attempted to better the fate of the women under her rule, Justinian's fanaticism was simply the signal of the end of an era in Eastern culture and learning; the end of civilization in Byzantium -- it was ready to join the rest of Europe in the Dark Ages.

Khadija (6th and 7th centuries)

What would this enterprising businesswoman say if she could see the result of her husband's formation of a new religion? Khadija would undoubtedly be horrified to see her sisters swathed in yards of black cloth so no one could see their hair or faces, denied an education or the right to own land -- perhaps rather than marrying her employee, Mohammed, she would have pushed him under one of her own caravans. Is there any religion in history that has been harder on women than Islam?

Mecca during the 6th and 7th centuries was a center of commerce and trade; it pretty much monopolized the trade routes between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. Little is known of Khadija's life before she employed the 25 year-old Mohammed as a camel driver, but she was a wealthy widow with a considerable trading business. Once a year her caravan went to Aleppo and Damascus, and Mohammed turned out to be the best caravan-leader she had ever hired. She decided to marry him -- he would be her third husband.

Khadija was forty when she married Mohammed, and one of the richest women in Mecca. Despite his lowly station as a camel-driver, Mohammed apparently had much to recommend him, not least of which his spectacular good looks, and it was a happy marriage. Khadija and Mohammed had six children, but the two sons died in infancy. For several years after his marriage, Mohammed served as Khadija's business manager. Eventually, however, Mohammed's study of religions (particularly Judaism and Christianity) led him to believe he was destined to be the prophet of his people, and lead them to the true God, Allah. At this time the Arabians were pantheistic, with Allah being simply the supreme god, much like Zeus. Khadija, so much in love with Mohammed, encouraged him in this, and stuck by him through years of persecution. When Khadija died, Mohammed remarried and became the master of a large harem (while she was alive, Khadija was his only wife, probably because she was the one with all the wealth, position and power).

Irene (8th century)

The pickings are slim in historical record during the centuries of the latter Dark Ages, 600-900 a.d. It is unfortunate that the records were kept entirely by clerics in the Christian church, who frowned on any kind of activity for women other than domestic or religious. One woman who basically forced her way into the history books by being more brutal and savage than the men of her generation (no mean task in the 8th century) was Irene, known both as Empress and Emperor of Byzantium.

The eastern world was at a low point and well past its' prime when Iconoclasm became a buzz-word for a battle between Christians who were opposed to 'graven' images and those who loved them -- the latter known as Iconoclasts.

Irene was the mother of Constantine VI, who ascended the throne at the age of 10. Irene became the Regent, and in 787 restored icon- worship to the Eastern Church. Unfortunately, she wasn't a good ruler, and nearly bankrupted the kingdom through uneven and unwise policies. Constantine managed to depose her in 790, but she refused to give up. By 797 she had the upper hand again, and arrested Constantine and had him blinded. From 797 until 802 Irene ruled as Emperor of Byzantium. This was the first time a woman had ruled over the Byzantine empire, and it gave Charlemagne the excuse to claim the throne for himself, which he did in 800. A marriage between the Emperor of the West and the Empress of the East was proposed, but never took place. In 802, shortly after the arrival of the embassy from Charlemagne and the pope, a revolution broke out in Byzantium and Irene escaped to Lesbos, where she died.

Olga (10th century)

Russia, or Rhos as it was known at the time, was a chaotic place in the 9th and 10th centuries a.d. Christians and Pagans lived alongside one another, and because the rulers of the kingdom were still pagan, there was little persecution of Christians. Until the unification of Novgorod and Kiev under Oleg in 881, it was a bunch of petty fiefdoms fighting amongst themselves. Oleg united the major tribes of Rhos and forced a treaty on Byzantium. He was succeeded by his nephew, Igor (son of the former chief), who engaged to lose pretty much all of the advances made by his uncle. When Igor followed Oleg into death after a short time, his son Svyatoslav was ruled too young to be the king, and Igor's widow Olga took over the throne as Regent.

In Kievan Russia, women had a major degree (for the times) of independence. Olga had been a large landowner before her marriage, and she still managed her estates after marrying Oleg. She established the first centralized financial administration in Rhos and sharply increased learning and literacy in the country. She so improved the lot of her people she attracted the notice of Christian, Jewish and Islamic missionaries, who all wanted first chance at such a large pagan bastian.

Olga was officially converted to Christianity in 957, during a visit to Byzantium. She then decided to convert her people, but she died before accomplishing this task. In fact, Svyatoslav was so ardent a pagan, he chased the envoy from Rome out of the country on threat of his life.

Judith The Fire (10th century)

Beginning in the 4th century a.d., a group of Black Jews known as Falashas (exiles) had been living in Ethiopia (and live there still). They resided in the mountans north of Lake Tsana; were of native African stock and spoke no Hebrew. They claimed descent from Menelik and his followers, who fled from Jerusalem. Historians believe, however, that they were converted to Judaism by immigrants.

In 975 a.d. the king of Ethiopia wrote to the King of Nubia to request help in quelling the Falashas, who had become very powerful and threatened to over-run the country. The Falashas were led by a woman named Judith The Fire, who forced the Ethiopian ruler into hiding. She managed to take over the country and set about eradicating Christianity (and Christians, undoubtedly) -- she burned the churches, enslaved the non-Jews, killed priests, and generally looted and pillaged all over the place. Reinforcements arrived, following a Christian bishop sent by the Patriarch of Alexandria, Judith was defeated and her followers killed or exiled.

Unfortunately, this internal struggle in Ethiopia resulted in continued suppression and persecution of the Jews by the Christian leaders (which had lead to the uprising to begin with) and lost Ethiopia some of its' remote colonies. This enabled the rise of the Moslem dynasties, which took over what is now Somaliland (and everyone knows how well they've fared). So Judith's fire was quenched, and the Jews lost out to the Christians, who in turn lost to the Moslems (the women lost out to everyone, as usual).

Murasaki no-Shikibu (10th century)

In the year 1001 a.d. Murasaki wrote what is one of the world's first novels, and certainly one of the longest. Genji Monogatari, or 'Gossip about Genji', is still in print today as The Tale of Genji. It was originally 4,234 pages long, in 54 volumes. Paper was in short supply (certainly after the writing of the book, if not before!), and when Murasaki ran out, she stole the sutras from a Buddhist temple and used them for her manuscript. Murasaki was an early feminist, and advocated education for women; but being a true Japanese women of her time, the goal of that education was to provide a fitting companion for a husband. Widowed young, little is known about Murasaki's life except that she was something of a 'court chronicler', and much of what is known about the Japanese aristocracy of the time comes from her writing.

Her story involves Prince Genji, son of an emperor and his favorite courtesan. Genji is a prince of little substance but great charm, of uncertain morals and not much fidelity. He only returns to his wife when one of his many love affairs ends, but when he goes to a monastery to repent of his evil ways, he falls in love with a princess named Murasaki. His wife conveniently dies in childbirth, leaving Genji free to marry his true love. The novel is highly pornographic, and paints a not-too-flattering picture of court and upper-class life in Japan during the 10th and 11th centuries.

It cannot be truly said that this was a dark age period in Japan's history, but for the poor and women, most of history has been.

Matilda (11th century)

Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, lived at the very end of the Dark Ages. Born in 1046 in Italy, her father was then known as Margrave Boniface II. Her mother was his second wife, Beatrice, daughter of the Duke of Upper Lorraine. Matilda was fortunate that her father was killed when she was six; her upbringing was left mainly to her better- educated mother, and she was able to maintain a far more autonomous position in the world of dark age Christianity than she would have if her father had lived to marry her off.

A warrior maiden in the tradition of Boadicea or Zenobia, Matilda made her liberated status acceptable to the restrictive society of her time by claiming she was on a divine mission (who better than the god-daughter of a Pope?) and the 'handmaiden' of St. Peter. Her 'holy' mission was really a power struggle between her adopted 'father', Pope Gregory VII, and the emperor of Germany.

However, all that was in the future when Matilda was a very small child. Inheritance of kingdoms, land and wealth depended, in those barbaric times, mostly on strength and how much of an army the inheritor could muster. One year after the death of Boniface, Beatrice married Duke Godfrey of Upper Lorraine, who became the Regent of Tuscany. Matilda had an extraordinary education for her time and place. She spoke four languages, could fight in battle, and sent an embroidered standard she designed to William the Conquerer as a gift. She could write her own letters unaided by a clerk (truly remarkable in an age when most literacy was confined to the church) and read.

Matilda was twice married, though neither effort seems to have been a success. She was driven by a religious battle-fever, and first appeared in battle alongside her mother, defending the power of Alexander II against the 'schismatics'; this was in 1061. It wasn't until the death of her stepfather in 1069 that Matilda truly came into her power, however; and in 1076 her first husband Godfrey (son of Duke Godfrey) was killed and she entered into the service of Gregory. He was involved in a power struggle with Emperor Henry, and Matilda was firmly entrenched in the camp of her god-father.

Though she nearly lost her kingdom in fighting for the supremacy of the pope against the emperor, Matilda managed to live to a relatively peaceful old age.